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00:28 Yeah. Yeah, No problem Um let's um start the basic

00:40 We've we've seen this before. So to make a mental note tomorrow thursday's

00:45 then next backwards, which will show . Uh So that reminds me.

00:51 for the answer keys for these always up to the Tuesday afternoon following this

00:58 deadline. So, um so there's um key is visible. So look

01:06 it, you have questions, let know. Uh no smart work this

01:11 , but there will be, I two assignments due next sunday the

01:16 So just a heads up um other , Let's see what we got uh

01:25 . So they will finish up, we'll probably have a little bit

01:30 probably the part of the gel. and motility may not get to

01:34 but uh the main thing here is there we go. So monday.

01:40 monday is that flipped classroom chapter four one. And kind of that class

01:44 , which is nothing to be scared . Just what you're gonna do is

01:48 of prepare on your own right. video lecture has been up all week

01:53 for that for that material electron So whatever it is you do in

01:59 of studying, just do that before . And monday's session will be heavily

02:07 questions just to kind of see how do. Okay. And, you

02:12 , interspersed with, you know, slides that covers some content uh

02:18 So, um so we'll do that monday and we'll have one of those

02:24 you have just to kind of mix up a little bit the let's see

02:31 else the uh class schedule so that to tomorrow I guess technically at midnight

02:40 . So if you're wanting a particular you may need to stay up till

02:45 tonight. Okay? Um But there be multiple slots you can sign up

02:50 on both those days so but remember can't sign up for anything unless super

02:57 . So make sure you do that uh turning point data. So if

03:01 look on blackboard you've seen that the couple of weeks have been wiped out

03:06 now it's replaced with monday's session So you'll see points there for for

03:13 but again remember uh you've got basically days to play with where you don't

03:19 to, it's not gonna count against if you don't show up and do

03:23 quicker questions. So um so do blackboard uh to make sure that if

03:31 were there and you were using the or the clicker that you are seeing

03:36 you're supposed to be saying that that is functioning and so you can at

03:40 from that standpoint make sure you check if you have an issue um do

03:47 there was lots of help for contact support. You can go in

03:52 They're actually in the building next to in Cbb building their house in there

03:58 you can get one on one help you need to for any kind of

04:02 issues. Okay um let's see uh there wasn't any any questions about this

04:09 of stuff or anything. Okay. will also be uh I do have

04:17 well let me find not wanting to but I'll let you know next week

04:22 so for the time being it's just you know prepare prepare for monday,

04:27 know and uh but don't be freaked about it. Okay. You know

04:33 go through it's meant for you really get help with that material. Okay

04:38 and do look over before you come certainly. So uh so today we're

04:44 get through most of the rest of three. Um So this was just

04:49 of basic summary the stuff we've talked about at this point. So over

04:55 remember we're looking at the pro periodic um these structures that consists of so

05:02 kind of take the approach of from outside in really. So what's kind

05:06 on the outside? Um So envelope , what's the membrane made of

05:12 from the transport, basic transport Um Then looked at the cell

05:20 right? The bacterial cell wall, negative, gram positive and the differences

05:26 . Then we ended with the what might call a typical cell envelopes because

05:34 every bacterias pains with the gram Alright. There's a number that don't

05:43 there's many to do of course but something that I kind of have variations

05:47 the typical very negative and positive Okay so we look at that.

05:53 typical types of micro bacteria which does type of light can. Okay but

05:58 has much more of this other These kind of very lipid, waxy

06:04 . Uh Look at michael plasmas. confuse mycoplasma micro bacteria. Mycoplasma lacks

06:15 relaxed so well. Okay. And RTK which are also prokaryotes, they

06:22 even have a cell wall but their wall material is similar but not identical

06:28 this popular like can chemically similar but are some differences. So we call

06:32 pseudo Mirian. Mirian or Mirian is . U. R. E.

06:42 . Is kind of an older name used to call so wall material by

06:47 . It's more commonly called like But they mean the same thing.

06:52 . But the pseudo Miriam's what they the so um so the last So

07:01 of this is kind of split into parts. So it's kind of last

07:03 of part one. Uh So we're the most external part of the cell

07:11 looking at these structures. So a of slime layer and biofilm. Okay

07:18 the capsule and climate are certainly structures the single cells. Okay, the

07:25 is a collection of material that's covering whole massive centers. Okay um so

07:34 the capsule, so contrasting capsule and versus the Slam there, capsule and

07:42 are both gene included products. there's genes specific for their synthesis.

07:51 , slime layer is not slime layer more like metabolic byproducts that may be

07:59 . Uh Just kind of stick to cell, right? You can grow

08:04 on certain ones on very high sugar and they will uh take from that

08:11 material and basically we're hanging loosely around exterior. So basically that's what we

08:17 it um for the cell that has , it can offer some protection of

08:24 . Um but it's not a necessarily consistent thing. Right? It's it's

08:29 to say again. Typically a metabolic kinda just hangs around the cell whereas

08:35 capsule it's tightly bound and as you see the capsule here tightly bound to

08:42 cell. Again, gene encoded um often the religious factor many pathogens will

08:49 a capsule. So the meningitis bacterium a capsule. The bacteria that causes

08:55 most common form of bacterial pneumonia has very thick capsule. Um many up

09:02 so capsule by covering kind of the with the capsule. It makes it

09:09 easy figures of ties. So this your main infection fighting cells, how

09:18 do their thing is to fake status engulf captains and it's it's harder to

09:23 that when the capsule this president um so again very organized structure, tightly

09:33 slam layer, not jean. Certainly associated with the south biofilms in our

09:41 a of course a aggregation of millions cells. Okay, but the mouth

09:48 itself is kind of the glue that it together is a probably Sacha ride

09:55 can be somewhat protein in nature um that is synthesized by itself. So

10:02 are in the process of biological It's a as we'll see later,

10:07 a stepwise process. Okay. Um it's not just a random association

10:13 cells coming together to form a It's a it's a species specific phenomenon

10:20 And in the orchestrated process. So genes turned on at certain times to

10:25 about the biofilm formation. Okay. one of the one of those genes

10:31 turned on after the biofilms kind of to become established. You have lots

10:37 cells present. Then they initiate the of that exhaust polymer matrix material which

10:43 highly polished saccharine nature. And that's kind of like I said kind of

10:47 glue that holds everything together. But course it encompasses millions of cells inside

10:52 thing. Um That's okay, these all structures biofilm, the material making

10:59 the biofilm uh capsule. It's They're all on the outermost periphery of

11:05 cells in fact. Um No questions that. So uh here's a

11:13 So this is a question we had last time. This is one of

11:17 , let's see how you can see you answer it before we talk about

11:20 stuff we talked about all these So let's see what we get

11:25 Okay exactly. Remember the session D. If you have the

11:33 Mm hmm mm hmm. Okay, put the timer on and as always

12:12 can always talk amongst yourselves if you . Okay. About this stuff.

12:18 about Super Bowl teams that are about in a couple of weeks, anybody

12:25 Cincinnati by the way, But it persistent. Okay. Mhm.

12:39 deposit for briefly and the stragglers jump . Okay, here we go to

12:50 beep. Alright, just got Alright, so let's see what we

12:55 here. Um So michael bacteria Well, I just showed the picture

13:01 ? It has pepper black cat layer . Um gram positive bacteria. It's

13:09 negatives that possess the endo toxin. , so a micro bacteria do have

13:15 look like in So that's that's the question coming up. That's false.

13:21 uh gram positives don't have it. the gram negatives that have the endo

13:28 the quick assets. Again, only grand positives. Right, so gram

13:32 have the liberal protein that the grand don't but I am positive have high

13:37 acids grab negative stuff. Again, is oh engines associated with the gram

13:45 that old policy aka right part of of the LPS layer. Um This

13:50 not a gram positive caucus. It's gram negative one. Ok. Remember

13:57 gram negative has three layers outer membrane wall here. So. F.

14:05 the correct answer here. Okay so one needs approved questions about that.

14:13 . So this question we're going to twice. So the first time we're

14:18 to talk about these things Very And so take a look at this

14:24 . Let me reset. Okay, ahead. Take a look at those

14:30 see what you come up with. this is the question uh in a

15:28 . Yeah, we put the timer . Mhm. Mhm. Hey,

15:59 . It head counts about 125 or . Six seven eight. All

16:09 here we go. 321. so, well, oh that will

16:18 will be saved. Will come back this question later. I will say

16:23 um there is a choice here. is false. I'll say that.

16:29 , so F would not be a answer here. Alright, so,

16:36 our cells and other eukaryotic cells. set of skeleton is a very um

16:45 , highly organized structure, multiple Um micro tubules. And you you

16:52 need to this is only for comparative , so don't need to I'm not

16:55 test you on eukaryotic single skeleton only comparison. So um micro filaments,

17:03 like acting for example, is a filament responsible for a certain type of

17:08 . I'm approaching contract, contracted Right? Active. Um micro tubules

17:16 different types of motion as well as the eukaryotic flagellum the spindle. And

17:21 closest has micro tubules involved. What ? The intermediate filaments um they anchor

17:32 in the cell. Okay, so very complex structure now it was found

17:37 maybe about 20 years ago that precarious have components of the site of

17:43 Not extensive like this and not organized they do have a set of skeletal

17:49 homologous to some of these structures. for pro carry its uh their function

17:56 function of elements in them is really shape, formula sound. Um And

18:05 particular you know, cell wall synthesis um division of the cell. So

18:11 was kind of the area in And so they were found out looking

18:18 mutants. This is bacillus which is rod shaped bacteria. Uh You see

18:24 non meeting form on the left on right, it's kind of rounded up

18:29 a ball and so that M. . E. Is a set of

18:33 development that serves to kind of help shape of that rod cell. And

18:38 it also is involved in cell wall . So without with what they meet

18:42 a defective component, it does not like a bacillus of course because that's

18:48 of the first hint how this may evolved in the shape of the cell

18:52 other functions. And so Uh we that there are three types of elements

19:02 uh a common one to all cell is this F. Tsz. Okay

19:11 the fine is the center of the . Right as you see here,

19:16 helps facilitate uh expectation expectation is the of how to sell divides following replication

19:24 the chromosome. Um The uh rod cells like the cells will have that

19:32 well. So you can see it in the middle, right? That

19:36 Tsz? But it also has the R E B. And so you

19:40 it's like it's like a scaffold, ? These little arc shaped pieces like

19:46 little scaffolds that are bringing about cell synthesis. Okay. And then these

19:52 eventually connect up okay, into a strength of petrol I can around the

20:00 . Okay. Um and again, R E B is only in rod

20:05 cells. Okay. But they but F Tsz that ring in the middle

20:10 present in all shapes. Okay, it's part of the expectation process that

20:16 cells undergo. Okay now curved or shape cells like this have this uh

20:24 skeletal component chris sentence or C R . S. Right on one side

20:31 the cell. Okay. And And changed my ink on one side of

20:38 cell. And so that helps to of curve that cell. But you

20:42 it also has All three components, ? That has the MRE.

20:47 And it has the F Tsz Okay, so rod, what is

20:52 or not is gonna have that A R. B. For helping

20:56 its cell wall synthesis. Okay. a curved sell uh you probably may

21:04 familiar with the bacteria that cause cholera was a comma shaped cell so it

21:10 fit in that category. Um So so these these elements are about uh

21:18 in september nation division itself. So synthesis can provide some protection to the

21:24 as well. Okay um so here talking about cept asian. Okay so

21:32 talk about getting a replication shortly. the life of material sell or you

21:37 any procure real cell as it begins as a culture begins to grow is

21:44 um cells will actually kind of that a little bit during optimal growth.

21:49 divide rapidly and associate a little liquid . Um as well of course rapidly

21:56 the they're getting replicated and they'll reach size where they will then begin to

22:02 eight. We call it split into . And so that's the process you

22:07 occurring where the pinching of the cell on both sides here and here and

22:15 meets up in the middle. Okay in that middle graphic here. Okay

22:22 having synthesis of cell envelope material on halves as the current as it goes

22:30 from opposing sides. So it pinches this but there's synthesis of cell long

22:35 cell envelope material on both sides. And it's against the that element that's

22:42 the middle of F. Tsz helps facilitate that. Okay as you see

22:47 portion of it right here. Okay this complex is what synthesizing cell wall

22:55 um tell envelope material as it's traveling the middle of that cell. And

23:03 at the same point in time it of constricts as well. But this

23:07 Tsz, what kind of constricts And then synthesizing cell wall. So

23:15 good material on both halves. Until finally it's complete. And then

23:19 have your two cells just about the here. Okay. And so this

23:26 we call the debate zone, is whole thing? Okay, and

23:32 it's ftse is kind of a scaffold this thing along as the seller splitting

23:39 two. Right? So because we already created to complete cells this of

23:45 , you know, we have to form new cell envelope material or it's

23:50 . Okay. And that's what helps this. Okay. And so cells

23:55 divide Well, cox oid cells like can divide in different planes.

24:01 So if they divide basically in one like this. Okay, that gives

24:10 either diplo caucus, so you can cells that are in pairs or in

24:14 change. Okay, let's streptococcus. it divides in two planes perpendicular to

24:21 other. Well then you get what's a tech transformation. Okay. Or

24:27 of apes or signing? There's some types that that's what they look

24:31 Okay, um or if you're a of caucus. You you divided in

24:37 planes? Okay, forming clusters Okay, so you know that morphology

24:44 all about. What are the Ways of dividing relative to each

24:51 Right? one plane, multiple planes planes will have. Okay, um

24:59 , so nucleotides. So when we're about the nuclear order now we're gonna

25:05 inside cell in the cytoplasm. What's on protect um So nuclear Lloyd don't

25:12 nuclear thyroid. So the Suffolk oID kind of means like it's light but

25:18 not exactly like it. Okay. an asteroid for example is kind of

25:24 a planet but it's not okay. a nuclear wade is an area.

25:31 just think of it as an area the criticism of the cell occupies in

25:35 side of plastic. And you can that appearance produces kind of a grainy

25:42 and this kind of light ish color the cytoplasm. Everything is kind of

25:46 whitish. Their light and color used chromosome. The chromosome can be um

25:52 obviously it's large but it can be up in certain in certain spots that

25:56 be unwind in certain spots. Um all about what's going on in terms

26:01 gene expression, right in order to the gene, you have access to

26:06 . So it'd be equivalent. So of course is happening. But there's

26:10 that aren't being expressed. So this be wound up. So you'll see

26:14 like this. Okay. And portions it's more open. Okay. Uh

26:21 have the green beads there are DNA proteins of various kinds. They help

26:28 the molecule. Uh you have attachments to the inner part of that cytoplasmic

26:37 that kind of helps stabilize it as . Okay. And in particular these

26:42 kind of the points of attachment to of help hold in place. Um

26:47 if you see that this chromosome is bound by its own membrane, like

26:54 your chromosomes are no nucleus here. . It's just the program is spread

27:01 throughout the cytoplasm. Okay. Um , the one thing to make mention

27:09 is right here. So there's a sequence. Right? And all chromosomes

27:16 already sequence you have your chromosomes having replication is initiated. Okay. And

27:24 for precarious oats with their single um it's a way for the cell

27:31 kind of keep track of the chrome during replication. So, by binding

27:36 the story, it does so in middle. Right. So remember also

27:42 F Tsz component will will eventually show there as well during reputation.

27:48 And so um so the story or this begins, it's kind of how

27:59 cell holds onto it at that And we'll see that we're doing

28:03 it will ensure that when the cell into that each half of the cell

28:08 a each half of the cell gets copy of the chromosomes before it becomes

28:12 cells. Right? So it's kind by holding on to it in the

28:16 of the glory. It's a way it to kind of guide the DNA

28:22 that both both let themselves get Okay. And you'll see that here

28:26 a second the coiling sort of the is coiling and uncoiling depending on it

28:33 being replicated as it's being expressed. so D. N. A.

28:37 race is involved in the calling and of D. N. A.

28:40 fact so the D. N. . Is a dynamic medical records department

28:49 . Okay. Um now but of certain because procurers have have one chromosome

28:58 remember that makes them hap Lloyd. so they're happy Lloyd organisms. One

29:05 . Okay Now we'll see mentioned in three and we talk about genetics and

29:11 genetics that there can be a partial . Okay So it may acquire

29:18 N. A. Via different mechanisms in that process may acquire one or

29:24 copies of genes that already has and that makes it a partial deployment but

29:31 can happen. Okay. But but would typically consider bacteria is happening.

29:39 . Um Alright so transcription translation. I mention this only because not at

29:47 process of of of these two things the way in which it happens because

29:54 no nuclear membrane in the bacteria. so we're in ourselves the processes

30:01 We have transcription in this nucleus translation . Right But not so in

30:11 And so for the moment just don't on what's going on out here but

30:15 inside. So this yellow blob Okay, so the red blobs are

30:23 . Okay. The black strand is . N. A. Okay,

30:31 you can see the DNA throughout the here. Okay. The blue

30:37 M. R. And S. . And then the gold is play

30:43 . Okay. So we got multiple going on here at one time.

30:47 . And that's really key to this process. So the polly robinson formation

30:53 the binding of multiple aneurysms to a transcript and then the subsequent translation of

31:01 into protein. Right. So here looking at a gene is being transcribed

31:07 the transcription translation process. Right? gonna make a R. And a

31:10 of a gene and then we're gonna that RNA into a protein.

31:16 So when it commemorates brings about transcription that messenger RNA. Okay, can

31:25 translated again. Let's see. We'll about this in chapter three. But

31:34 the transcript of course can be So that's brought about by ribosomes that

31:40 buy So one thing to mention And know this for example one. But

31:45 to kind of help you understand the of course has what's called a reverse

31:52 binding site. R. B. . For short. Okay. And

31:56 gonna be so this is gonna be five prime and the molecule and the

32:02 prime end is down here. Remember all nucleic acids RNA or DNA

32:06 identified By five and 3 provinces do chemistry of of the molecules. And

32:15 the five prime ministers all have derived own binding site. That's what arrivals

32:19 look for and binds to. so if it's exposed then it will

32:24 that, it will buy into it it binds and then begins to

32:28 Okay, so as it moves and of course this site will be

32:35 Right then another one can come in that's what happened. So it keeps

32:38 in and in which is why the um transcript is full of ribosomes.

32:46 you know it's pie peptide chains differ length because this guy at the end

32:52 almost done. All right, so pipe peptide chain is almost complete.

32:56 it's this this length or this guy here is only about halfway through.

33:01 , so we're in the process of synthesizing the pipeline. So um this

33:08 happens because we don't have any separation the processes. There's no nuclear membrane

33:13 these things separate transcription translation all occurs . Okay, the so out back

33:22 back now out to here. Okay these components. Right. The

33:27 R. P. Stands for signal particle because you know proteins made proteins

33:34 the cell have they have different they need to work many of them

33:40 course work in the cytoplasm, some in the membrane, some maybe work

33:45 the cell. Okay. So for that go to the membrane or outside

33:49 cell? There has to be a to sort out those proteins so that

33:54 go to the proper location. And that's what this is all

33:59 The srp Okay, so these recognize proteins recognize sequences that's let's say out

34:06 , this is hypothetically this poly peptide . There's a a signal sequence right

34:12 . Okay. And that's what one these S R. P. S

34:17 recognize. Okay, because it tells that that's a protein that has to

34:22 that's going to be in the membrane work outside. So only those types

34:25 compounds that city. So that was people recognize it. Bring it to

34:30 to the cell membrane site as you here and finished synthesis at that

34:38 So it goes in the membrane. right. Um from for proteins,

34:46 work in the membrane or outside. , but back to the bigger

34:50 which is this coupling of transcription Right, polly polly zone party rivals

34:56 . Same thing. Okay, so question here is what is the implication

35:02 this? Why is this such I even bring this up in the first

35:06 . What what is the implication of ? Right, so, think of

35:12 don't do that. Right. We genes will get the transcript and those

35:16 those transcripts egg's nucleus and they'll be outside And typically in the indo pacific

35:23 . Okay, so uh what's which is gonna synthesize proteins faster bacteria for

35:36 , Nigeria of course. Which will we talk about unit a unit of

35:42 in one minute, which will produce proteins to bacteria, forgiven jean bacteria

35:47 UK area bacteria. So that's the . This is all a part of

35:53 things we're gonna we have and are to them. I have a question

35:59 day one. I think it was why have our bacteria, bacteria has

36:04 so successful that they've been around for billion years. All right. Um

36:11 small size. Right? Their ability grow fast um mutations can occur at

36:18 rate faster than us. Okay, they can produce lots of generations very

36:25 and and very quickly among the people mutations and those are those that are

36:31 . Will be selected for, Because they grow so fast because generations

36:36 fast. This can happen relatively Okay, just look at antibiotic resistance

36:41 much President that is. Right. um it all ties together small

36:48 small chromosome. Um if you're if rapidly dividing and growing, you've got

36:55 have a lot of protein synthesis going . Right. Because that represents

37:00 right? That's gonna produce biomass living material. Right? So to do

37:05 at the grocery date, they can Okay, it means you gotta have

37:11 of protein synthesis and do it Right. And that's this enables that

37:15 happen by coupling both processes basically. , protein. Maybe you can't sustain

37:22 high growth rate. Right. And they're small, the small chromosome,

37:27 don't have to do a lot to fast either. Okay. Um so

37:31 all ties together the uh There's one point. I'll think of it.

37:39 questions about this. Mhm. um and of course, one thing

37:45 didn't mention is we talk a little about this before metabolism. Their metabolism

37:49 so diverse. Right? They can lots of different things that we

37:52 Right. Little tropes and all other of things. Right. So that

37:57 them to to adapt in different Um Okay. So just contracting cell

38:03 between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Okay. so number one, while it already

38:11 says vision is not mitosis. Um the end products are similar,

38:19 they're the same. Right? They close. Right, So official xerox

38:24 . Right. Most of mitosis in way as well because you're producing identical

38:30 self. But the way you get the end product is very different.

38:34 ? So, we know that in common among both processes, of

38:39 is to obviously replicate the chromosome. . And then to be able to

38:44 sure each daughter cell gets a copy that. Right? So we copy

38:49 and then each daughter cell gets a a copy. Okay, So,

38:54 you carry out that can be a bit more complicated because They have multiple

38:59 , we have 46. Right? a deployed cell. Um, so

39:06 not a trivial thing. So you to be able to make sure 23

39:12 . Right? So you get 23 and that they replicate all replicate.

39:17 then that each daughter cell gets chromosomes through 23. Right? So,

39:22 hence we go through the phases. ? The pro fes meta phase and

39:26 phase tele phase. So, we a copy of the chromosomes we see

39:31 . And we have anybody. Remember old sister chroma tides and among and

39:38 non central committee is uh that that . Remember that? Okay,

39:45 the And then we have segregation nuclei . And then we end up with

39:51 cells. So brokerage boats, obviously have copies of the chromosome and then

39:58 see, I remember that it holds to that. It will go along

40:02 that story sequence. Okay, In chromosome. And then when it gets

40:09 , all right, it will hold to each chromosome pair at the

40:14 Like So we'll see this in the slide, like So that's that's its

40:19 of being able to segregate and Okay, so there because there is

40:24 there is no psychotic spindle or any that stuff going on here and no

40:29 or any of that stuff. So it kind of holds on to

40:32 repair of the chromosome like that then splits into two and ensures that each

40:37 gets a copy. Right? And we have Two clumps. So

40:41 of course, is very different. in eukaryotic cells, 10-24 hours,

40:46 know, the fastest growing cells would those likely. And for us the

40:53 of a fetus. So from two, baby developing a mother's

40:58 those are really rapidly dividing cells. we're talking on the order of maybe

41:02 hours to eight at that stage. It's the fastest, but Most of

41:10 are even longer than this in terms division. Okay. But certainly for

41:15 average time. 15 to 20 minutes two hours. Yes. And they're

41:21 to be outliers. There's some that longer than two, but you

41:25 for most there within this range. . So you can produce the bacteria

41:29 produce 20 generations and 8, 8 10 hours. It takes a human

41:36 years to do that. All So you can see kind of rapid

41:40 growth and comparison there. So, so again, this is strictly just

41:45 kind of comparative purposes. So, gonna look at um verification not the

41:52 and bolts of of Okazaki fragments and the details you already forgot through

41:58 This is more just kind of overview a couple of unique features here.

42:05 , so again, begins with the sequence. Right? That's where strands

42:10 . So, I've already separated the here at the story. And once

42:15 separate strands, you didn't wanna actually two forks. Right? Um So

42:21 fork is where you have The strands on one side. Right? But

42:28 haven't yet separated the they're about ready separate the strands and copy it.

42:34 ? So you have to folks created . Each fork will have a reptile

42:38 . Right? So each replica zone to DNA polymerase molecules. Remember,

42:47 polymerase synthesizes DNA. So you have there. So each representing complex has

42:54 of these, Right? Because you're two strands. So P.

42:59 L. For short and the same here. Right, So DNA

43:03 two of those DNA polymerase molecules stuck along with other components. You need

43:08 copy DNA. And um this will will then proceed in opposite directions.

43:14 we've copied some new DNA already synthesized DNA. And then we proceed to

43:20 in this direction. This way that . Okay, that's that bidirectional

43:28 Um And they will come to a , There will be a terminator sequence

43:34 the process ends. Okay, you'll to formed molecules chromosomes. Um But

43:43 soon as this story is copy, ? So we have a copy here

43:49 we'll have a copy here. So then that will be held on

43:54 you by the cell. Right. we see that here. So here

43:59 one story here is here and there's other one. So as soon as

44:04 part of the chromosome gets copied So hold on to that. Okay

44:09 the way to segregate those those chromosomes then it proceeds to copy,

44:15 So we have the loops, loops are getting bigger. Right? Here's

44:22 here's one right? There is the copies for me. Okay, Here

44:26 the terminator sequence where it ends. . And then before we even the

44:35 round of reputation. Okay, you that that's what the triangles are meant

44:40 rectangles are meant to show before we finished the first round, we've already

44:46 on the next round. Right? this replication will bring about, You

44:51 , two cells. Right? But it's already going, oh okay,

44:55 gonna I'm thinking ahead to what we're have four cells already. Right?

44:59 one that gives to two years Right? So it's kind of like

45:02 looking to the future here and probably the two eventual to next copies for

45:09 when there will be four cells. again this is why, you

45:13 you can grow so fast, it do it do it in this

45:16 Okay. Um and so then also the blue dots here are the components

45:24 the ftse Z that come together to that Ziering and that's where you have

45:32 synthesis of envelope material and the segmentation . Right? And we'll have to

45:37 cells. Okay, so um let's me just quickly show this animation.

45:51 Okay, there we go. So is let me shut him up.

46:02 , so all right. I mean for a little bit. There we

46:08 to the chromosome and let's see the sequence and then you copy that.

46:16 , so make a copy uh as as we copy the tories then there's

46:22 binds and holds them to the inner of that membrane. And two replication

46:27 form. And here comes the OEMs. Okay, as we

46:32 Right, It's a little slow. we go. Okay, there are

46:36 reptiles owns Each with two DNA Polymerase . So um you see there and

46:44 we begin to proceed in that bidirectional . Okay, As we see,

46:54 we go. Um so the loops getting bigger. That's these are the

46:59 copies that are forming, Right? these two guys are moving toward the

47:04 sequence. And so um we see right here that now We're already starting

47:17 the next round of replication. So this is this this up

47:21 This will give us going to two and up here in the next

47:25 So it's like 1-2-4. Okay, , this is why growth can proceed

47:31 quickly and again, growth proceeding under conditions. Right? When the cell

47:39 it has everything it needs to eat temperature is just right and everything is

47:43 to do this very very rapid. exponential growth of course we talked about

47:50 . Right. Is is that very growth face? Okay so um and

48:00 there's also you don't see it of is there's you know proteins being synthesized

48:05 well and that's going on while this going on too. Any questions?

48:16 . Okay. So polar aging. what is this about? This is

48:21 it's really a function of cell Okay. Um particularly in the context

48:29 of rod shaped cells that doesn't have be just rocket but it's easy to

48:34 of see it in rod shaped Um So it just has to do

48:40 but it still divides right? 11 . That cell is actually the one

48:47 the actual physical division. Okay. because the way segmentation works, remember

48:54 that's When division occurs then you create poles. Right? So we call

49:00 new because they have now just have received new envelope material. Right?

49:06 that you can call that new compared the other end. So that's so

49:10 cell just came out of cell division that's exactly what happened. So it

49:15 have been split. Substation would occur this side to create a new poll

49:22 and then we call the other one older people. Okay. And so

49:26 can get an accumulation, you know a as a culture of bacteria grows

49:31 to be a a portion of types will be will get older as the

49:37 grows longer. But then there's also accumulation of more older pulls in the

49:43 in the culture. Okay. Now the what's the deal about the pole

49:48 the cell? Well um as cells um the proteins in that cell will

49:59 in function. Okay. And they old proteins that tend to kind of

50:06 their Uh three dimensional shape. They tend to aggregate together. Okay.

50:13 and the net effect is to have collection of proteins don't function.

50:17 Okay. And of course that eventually a toll on the cell. The

50:22 will not remain viable for very long these bad proteins kind of tend to

50:28 as to sell ages. Okay. they tend to collect at the old

50:33 and that's where the kind of non or dysfunctional proteins are collecting at accumulate

50:39 the old pole of the cell. . So you can see differences in

50:45 behavior, so to speak. And one of the effects is of

50:51 it leads to cell death. But in some cases for disease causing types

50:58 can have different responses in exposure to . All polls social polls for some

51:09 that mycobacterium is example. Your book of this can happen. Listens to

51:15 . Okay. And I'm not exactly why but they're still working on it

51:23 they do see that effect sometimes um uh but it's not something that's necessarily

51:31 . Just just a forming an old just a function of the cell division

51:37 . So but within that population uh will be resistant to certain types of

51:45 . Okay. Um Other kind of differences. So because you think of

51:52 right okay well it's the same on ends but no we just see that

51:56 can be different but also certain other . So like an endospore formation comes

52:03 mind. Right? So these can on one end of the 7th.

52:08 in all cases but in many cases do as you see here right there

52:13 british. Um The unit here is indoor sports? Okay. And it's

52:19 one end of the cell uh Oops sorry uh is one that has

52:28 morphology. So when you have um poll where there's growth tends to occur

52:37 one end and not the other. you can kind of get this non

52:41 growth. It's called metamorphic. Let just go ahead and just to show

52:45 an example of that. So here see they're not all uniform. That's

52:50 characterizes polymorphic. They're playing more of type. So you can imagine a

52:57 rather cox would sell all the cells circles, right? Or it's a

53:02 . All the cells are rocked okay the metamorphic type there's no uniformity,

53:07 like different shapes so often like they them irregular forms may have kind of

53:14 of branching form. So that characterizes metamorphic type. So it kind of

53:20 growth from the poles creates this and can see um as well all the

53:27 shapes of bacteria, bacterial types and types whether it's a proxy in different

53:35 or for the rhythm or rod shaped regular types. These are all functions

53:42 of of growth. Uh Or from plane of division is kind of how

53:50 forms arise. Okay. Uh Carlo is one that's a you can kind

53:58 go into two modes uh a motel where it has a flagellum on one

54:02 . And that that in itself is poor difference gentlemen. One in um

54:09 not on the other end a in case of stock. So you can

54:13 between having a stock which kind of it in place or which allows it

54:19 move right and whether it has one the other it's really a nutrient driven

54:26 . So in in a area of nutrients it will stick it will stay

54:32 and be stationed over the stop. it can we have all this food

54:37 if it's nutrient depleted it's gonna want find food. So then it turns

54:41 stock into a joke and move so kinda goes back and forth. But

54:45 point here is it's on one end the cell, not on both.

54:49 we have that asymmetrical difference. Um the. Okay so let's go back

54:58 this question again. We've gone through points and let's see how are you

55:05 the second go around. Okay. there there is. Remember I said

55:12 is a false statement. So don't F. Yeah. Okay.

56:03 I get the timer on. Just a note. Mm hmm.

56:31 Okay. For a second. That's about our headcount there.

56:41 here we go. 321. He is correct. He is

56:53 So e is false that information basically , replication does run ahead of division

57:07 . Right? So we saw that was already copying DNA chromosome.

57:14 well, well before two cells gonna and anticipating when four cells will be

57:20 . Right. So polar aging certainly to cell division ftse dissect ation certainly

57:28 american be one. So two forks created when you open the strands and

57:34 of each fork. Okay. Um questions. Okay. Yeah. So

57:49 In what organism? Exactly? that's why bacterial transcription, translation.

58:00 , no nucleus. That's why they all occur together. Yeah. Any

58:05 questions. Okay. All right. let's talk a little bit about some

58:11 the structures. So this take a at this one. Okay, another

58:16 of those before and after ones. revisit this again. But we're going

58:22 talk about these points within the time got left. Mhm. Okay.

59:17 got the clock on again. Time to go. 321.

59:54 keep a note of that. So previous one that we actually doubled doubled

59:58 second question twice As many people answered the second time around. So let's

60:04 what happens on this one. So structures. So we look at these

60:11 . There are various categories. Probably two main categories are what I call

60:19 related to their metabolism. Okay. others related to a storage. Yeah

60:30 storage. For the first of We'll look at the kind of metabolic

60:38 that relate to the the autotrophs. ? So remember your auto tropes in

60:43 . So two categories right? Those can use light energy, photo photo

60:49 tropes and those that use And they're compounds and oxidized thesis for energy.

60:55 ? That's the Okay, so both those get their carbon from SEO to

61:02 fixing the ceo to to make organic . Okay we talked about this

61:07 So um so there are some organized organized structures specialized structures that relate to

61:16 metabolism. Okay, so the pilot . So you've likely heard of bitcoins

61:21 the context of plant cells and Okay, so we're not talking about

61:26 here. These are bacterial photosynthetic types have folding of their membrane right side

61:35 the membrane folding. That's the stuff full of photosynthetic pigments. So these

61:41 what we call the Okay so in it doesn't form an organ l

61:47 Okay just membrane folding stuff. Full these photosynthetic pigments. Okay. The

61:54 are protein uh covered structures. Okay are full of this enzyme ra

62:05 Okay. Short for close by phosphate fox Alice basically what it is.

62:14 takes co. two And attached it another molecule. It's the co two

62:19 . So our troops are very vigorous doing this will have these zones which

62:26 basically uh sio two fixing structures. and so you'll find them. You

62:33 find them in both photos. Water . Put a lot of perfect bacteria

62:38 little trophic bacteria. Okay another structure strictly quality fire and quality photo

62:51 Our gas vehicles. Right? So water light hitting water will be refracted

62:58 order to find the optimal depth to able to absorb their level of light

63:05 . They will want to adjust their . Alright. To be optimal in

63:09 of absorbing light and the gas factors promote that and allow that to

63:15 Okay so you often see that in photo auto traffic bacteria. Okay um

63:24 other structures most of these but not all but one on this one are

63:30 storage. Okay so meta chromatic Granules it's inorganic phosphate phosphate palmer. Uh

63:41 cell that you see there uh stains methylene blue staining purplish. And because

63:49 produce a lot of these uh monochromatic . The way it's utilized is really

63:55 to clip off a phosphate group and attach it to A. D.

63:59 . To make a teepee. That a quick energy store for where to

64:04 energy quickly. Um The so you're with starch in plants like Virginia and

64:14 how you store glucose polymers as a a glycogen in your muscles. I

64:22 . Thank you. I will in 15 minutes. I'll be there be

64:26 that. Uh So glucose polymers. ? So bacteria of course have those

64:36 well. So sulfur Granules, our by product. Right? So

64:43 Two s. So little trophy, could take this oxidizes to form elemental

64:49 . And then these will show up the little yellow blobs in the

64:54 Okay. And um they tend to rather insoluble. So they kind of

65:00 hold onto them in the cell like . And there's actually material species that

65:05 can differentiate on those that have the metabolism. But one type holds onto

65:10 Granules. Teletype lets them go. but this this one that's holding on

65:14 them um loop it. So fat . So ph B. Is um

65:23 polymer. There's also other variations of uh the main unit is right

65:32 Okay so it makes polymers of this lipid molecule and well then just clean

65:40 off and use it as an energy . Okay let's see what else there

65:45 full of these PHP Granules. All little blobs here is PHP palmer's.

65:53 so um now the many new zones neither a food storage. Not a

66:04 storage, not an energy storage, not a food source. Okay.

66:09 um not really a metabolic byproduct But what it is it's thinking as

66:14 compass, it's like the bacterial compass you will. Okay so it will

66:20 themselves towards magnetic north if you're in northern hemisphere for the magnetic south if

66:26 in southern industry. Okay. And it's meant to two as a way

66:31 the cells to orient themselves in These are aquatic organisms. Right?

66:38 so a the orientation to magnetic north south is toward north and south but

66:45 . Okay. So as it shows illustration here and we're going northwards Northern

66:52 but down okay. Down toward north down towards south. And that's the

66:58 because this is all about this kind the way it uses oxygen.

67:05 We'll learn later. There are various bacteria these oxygen. Some can't use

67:10 all. Some are killed by But some have these variations. And

67:14 the micro profile uses oxygen but at much lower concentration than atmospheric mothers.

67:23 ? The um error can't use it lot. Right? So there are

67:31 but generally auction levels of water vary terms of depth, most higher at

67:38 top of the water column less or below unless you go lower the

67:45 So it allows them to find the depths of oxygen levels for them that

67:52 optimal for them. And that's what does. Okay. Um so moving

67:57 a level down which may be somewhere or here, depending on this,

68:03 micro profile or an arab. So what that's what that's all about

68:08 Okay. The um collides with brad , attachment. Okay, primarily.

68:18 that can be specialized pilots. Is some pilots and maybe the same

68:25 Same component partner cover me. Um so for every I tend to be

68:33 numerous like this guy. Okay. um tend to be less in

68:41 more specialized functions typically. Ok, brian about attachment, pillai that

68:49 but often about grabbing onto something, it toward itself. Um In different

68:56 you can have a kind of motion that as we'll see the sex pilots

69:01 see that in conjugation, drawing two together, the north shape and

69:06 Um other types of pilots that will bring fragments of DNA into the process

69:11 transformation. So it varies. So tend to have more specialized functions and

69:18 less in quantity compared to february. The uh stock, we saw that

69:25 in the context of the polarity of . The stock and a lot more

69:32 to the surface. Not super common back here. There's a few few

69:37 that have that um but there's many course have pillai of different types.

69:44 , now the twitching motility just to that briefly. Okay, the that

69:52 . So there's we're talking about different of motions of magnetism gives you that

69:59 downward toward magnetic poles. North and . Gas fractals can move cells in

70:05 water column up or down a I can can produce a type of

70:11 as well called twitching motility. And so what it is is really

70:17 pill. I can problem arise so can add pilling units to make it

70:23 or we can take them off diploma . And so that's kind of the

70:26 the smooth motion occurs by either extending politicization or retracting through deployment.

70:32 Okay, so here you see a that will plagiarize right extending and it

70:39 get bigger. Okay, so you getting longer rather. Okay, and

70:44 been an attachment point at the Okay, then the cell will

70:49 Memorize, right, retracting, take off, make it shorter and as

70:55 does, so it moves right? you can see if we look at

71:02 so there it is in one right? And then it moves in

71:06 direction because the action of that pylon . So it gives you kind of

71:13 you can see over here as It problem arises attaches, it could

71:19 to be over here this way or way and then move in that

71:25 Okay, maybe even move back this . Okay, so just depicts um

71:32 the motion is twitching because uh it on a surface. Right? So

71:38 talking about motion. Surface is key it's sticking itself. The pilots are

71:46 to the surface and then lose the along. So it's kind of like

71:50 of it as a growing a boat land where the doors are pillai.

71:56 pillai touches the ground and you you know, be it's difficult,

72:01 you could move the boat that right? But something of yours is

72:05 and they're kind of it's kind of jerky kind of motion that sticks

72:09 then retracts sticks out, right? it kind of gives us not smooth

72:14 , but it is moving in the . Okay? But it's all about

72:18 , right? It's a gel on movement in a maintenance would make it

72:23 , multiple directions, But this is the surface, right? Without with

72:28 called twitching motility. Okay, um many questions about that, So

72:36 gonna stop there and we'll finish up fluid gel um next time. And

72:41 the flip fast

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