| 00:00 | So today is lecture last lecture which mid-term three review and we start with |
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| 00:09 | the auditory system and if you recall the in the auditory system um We |
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| 00:19 | about the properties of sound how these of the air molecules. These oscillations |
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| 00:26 | the air molecules. Um Different frequencies different intensities or amplitudes enter into the |
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| 00:36 | through the external air which is external me, a tous. And then |
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| 00:41 | have the middle air which contains the panic membrane. The obstacles over window |
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| 00:47 | the inner air which is a part the coakley, a part of the |
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| 00:51 | cochlea Perata's That has the cranial eight Mr Bullock cochlear nerve and the |
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| 00:58 | component carries information from the coakley. this is the use station tube that |
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| 01:02 | discussed also the obstacles will then amplify movement of the air drum and moved |
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| 01:09 | fluids and the three chambers of the that are scalable stimulus, media and |
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| 01:15 | tympani. They contain paralympics in the of tympani and the stimuli and and |
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| 01:21 | lymph which is high in potassium in case of media. Media also contains |
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| 01:26 | organ of corti which has the hair that transducers the mechanical movement of the |
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| 01:33 | into electrical receptor potentials. There is ton of topic map in the coakley |
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| 01:39 | where the cells hair cells that are the closest to the oval window process |
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| 01:47 | highest frequency of sound and the further you go to the apex or the |
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| 01:51 | prima, the end of this unwrapped like cochlea. The cells will be |
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| 01:59 | increasingly lower frequencies of sound. So have this total topic map the trans |
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| 02:05 | shin of mechanical movement happens by displacement the basilar membrane by the movement of |
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| 02:12 | fluid. And the displacement of the membrane which contains the organ of corti |
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| 02:17 | the supportive cells and three rows of outer hair cells. One row of |
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| 02:21 | inner hair cells, displacement up for and bending of the hair cells, |
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| 02:27 | to the right will cause deep This is steady state or no deep |
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| 02:32 | . Zero change in the potential and deflection downward will bend the cilia in |
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| 02:37 | opposite direction, causing hyper polarization. therefore the oscillation or the oscillation that |
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| 02:45 | see in mechanical oscillation movement of the of the obstacles and then fluid movement |
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| 02:53 | and the electrical potential oscillation translated by hair cells. So three rows of |
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| 02:59 | hair cells and one row of inner cells. And most of the information |
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| 03:05 | the higher processing centers is communicated from inner hair cells. So you see |
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| 03:10 | crane, the cranial nerve aid portion the cochlea nerve, contacting mostly the |
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| 03:17 | hair cells not the outer hair Inner hair cells have tr pD one |
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| 03:25 | is transient receptor potential to be one . It's a mechanically gated channel that |
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| 03:32 | permissible to potassium and there's a high of potassium in the end of the |
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| 03:37 | and so when there is a bending the cilia. These channels open up |
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| 03:41 | opening up of the channels will potassium inside the de polarize the |
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| 03:46 | Open voltage gated calcium channels, influx calcium will result in the neurotransmitter release |
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| 03:53 | deep polarization. Now there is another feature here between these channels called the |
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| 04:00 | link pro dance that these channels and Jason cilia are interconnected with the tip |
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| 04:04 | the opening of one of the When it moves into, let's say |
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| 04:09 | direction will encourage the opening of the on the nearby cilia. The outer |
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| 04:15 | cells have spring like membrane proteins that for them to essentially exemplify and exaggerate |
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| 04:23 | movement of the tech tore real Once there is a movement of the |
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| 04:28 | membrane and so it allows for greater and allows for better encoding foot by |
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| 04:34 | inner hair cells, the auditory pathway the cochlear to as you recall in |
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| 04:41 | of these pathways you look where the is located. The auditory pathway goes |
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| 04:46 | the ventral cochlear nucleus from there, fibers go into the superior olive from |
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| 04:51 | sides. So you have by oral uh by oral sound processing at the |
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| 04:57 | this low level of the brainstem here you have projections going to midbrain to |
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| 05:04 | curricula some part of the corporate contra from there to the medial nucleus nucleus |
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| 05:09 | the nucleus and thalamus dedicated for auditor processing and onwards to the primary auditory |
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| 05:17 | the stone, a topic map of map that you have aligned here along |
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| 05:22 | coakley A and hair cells is preserved the spiral ganglion cells and into the |
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| 05:29 | the way into the primary auditory cortex the cells that are located under these |
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| 05:34 | will be selectively responsive to specific frequencies sound sound localization. We discussed uh |
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| 05:43 | there's anatomy built in the air that drive the sound. The sound coming |
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| 05:48 | one direction will reach one here the second year is in the shadow |
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| 05:51 | with some delay will reach another And so the mechanism of activation of |
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| 05:56 | year and initiation of the action potentials one side will result in the convergence |
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| 06:03 | these signals. When it reaches the of the other ear, the sound |
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| 06:07 | the other air and you have that potential. The convergence of these signals |
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| 06:12 | indicate where the sound is localized if converges on three, that means the |
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| 06:17 | is localized on the right. If were to converge on to, that |
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| 06:20 | sound is coming from the front or back at the same time. If |
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| 06:24 | were to travel from the right side and the left side later it would |
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| 06:29 | converge on one which would indicate the is coming from the opposite direction. |
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| 06:35 | talked about the hearing impairments, conduction . So anything to do with conducting |
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| 06:41 | sound mechanically. It's impairments and calcification, rupture of the air drum |
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| 06:48 | the sensory neuron which is damage and and the degeneration of the hair |
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| 06:54 | Tinnitus is ringing is because of the loss of hearing. And what happens |
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| 07:00 | then the cilia that are holding up tutorial membrane for the cells that are |
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| 07:05 | , the directorial member and becomes So there's constant movement of the pictorial |
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| 07:11 | and it's not being held steady in with all of the hair cells that |
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| 07:15 | be there producing this high frequency pitching called the tinnitus. If there is |
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| 07:21 | complete loss of hearing, then there a procedure with cochlear implants which essentially |
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| 07:27 | have the microphones receiving the sound then that sound into an electrical stimulation and |
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| 07:35 | an array of electrodes that will get along the cochlear to to stimulate. |
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| 07:41 | this case the hair cells are dead stimulate the spiral ganglion cells because of |
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| 07:46 | tonal topic map the coakley arc cells are responsible for high frequencies will be |
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| 07:53 | close here and the low frequencies will located at the hilly country MMA. |
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| 07:58 | you can reproduce the rudimentary representation of sound of different frequencies using the cochlear |
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| 08:06 | . And we finished the lecture by video which was more fun but just |
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| 08:11 | illustrate that other animals have much better localization and in part because they also |
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| 08:19 | a symmetry in their ears. And certain anatomy like the feathers, making |
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| 08:24 | like big cops behind the ears to all that sound. They don't rely |
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| 08:29 | other senses as much in sound localization we do. And I'll skin to |
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| 08:35 | at night and underneath the snow without the prey just by by listening and |
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| 08:41 | it not only within you know left right but also the depth of sound |
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| 08:46 | is really excellent in these animals. that concluded our first lecture. Our |
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| 08:55 | lecture was on this amount of sensory where we talked about the processing of |
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| 09:00 | , temperature, pain and appropriate exception position, position of joints and muscles |
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| 09:05 | respect to the rest of the body the gravity and the earth. We |
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| 09:10 | all of these different nerve endings that inside the skin and they're widely distributed |
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| 09:16 | the body. We have some of that are rapidly reacting, others that |
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| 09:20 | slowly reacting rapidly adapting or slowly And they're small and large and we |
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| 09:29 | a lot more sensitivity and discrimination This two point spatial discrimination tests will |
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| 09:36 | that you have a lot more discrimination your fingers around your face, around |
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| 09:41 | mouth, not so much in your . And then again you have more |
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| 09:46 | and other parts of the body. that has to do with the distribution |
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| 09:50 | these nerve endings, the size of nerve endings that you find especially in |
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| 09:54 | digits. Uh there's four types of that will carry that information. Everything |
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| 10:01 | the head will be carried into the cord. You have the first group |
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| 10:06 | fibers, the fastest largest appropriate The second one is mechanical receptors or |
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| 10:12 | . The third one my eliminated the and temperature and the fourth group and |
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| 10:17 | eliminated fibers is for processing temperature, and itch sensation, which is the |
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| 10:22 | lasting sensation. All of these projections go into the spinal cord through the |
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| 10:28 | root ganglion and each one of the root ganglion will be responsible for a |
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| 10:35 | Dermot, oh, on one side the body. So just like we |
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| 10:39 | the divisions in the vertebra and also divisions in the spinal nerves of the |
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| 10:45 | cord such as cervical thoracic lumber, . You also have the cervical, |
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| 10:52 | Dermot tones lumber and sacred, representing one on each side off the |
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| 10:59 | We discussed the derma tones also with to shingles where early on we talked |
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| 11:05 | viruses and some of the virus is the ability to travel and to greatly |
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| 11:10 | lee and the herpes. Zoster virus causes chickenpox and can get reawakened and |
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| 11:16 | in just one single spinal nerve on side of the body, essentially lighting |
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| 11:24 | with inflammation and paying one single derma . Uh this virus is capable of |
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| 11:30 | Antara greatly and after being dormant, capable of moving back, retrograde |
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| 11:36 | in other words, going into the nervous system and then out of the |
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| 11:41 | nervous system back into the periphery, havoc on the nerve endings and inflammation |
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| 11:45 | the nerve endings. Secondary order processing . Everything from the neck down goes |
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| 11:52 | the spinal cord and a sense through dorsal column nuclei. And you can |
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| 11:58 | again these cuts right here in the oblon gata you have fibers through dorsal |
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| 12:06 | that go to dorsal column nuclei and medulla and then cross over from the |
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| 12:11 | column nuclei. They cross over on other side so they become contra lateral |
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| 12:17 | project the ventral posterior nucleus of the nucleus, dedicated for that matter, |
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| 12:22 | information processing and from there to certain of the primary somatosensory cortex area. |
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| 12:28 | . One fibers that process information from face of these large mechanical receptor accents |
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| 12:36 | face come through cranial nerve, five nerve that carries that information to the |
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| 12:43 | sensory trigeminal nucleus located at the level the ponds and from there it crosses |
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| 12:51 | Into the VP of the Thalamus and different portion of the S. one |
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| 12:59 | . So madam sensory cortex as we has different representations and cortical maps. |
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| 13:06 | there's a cortical map for each digit we talked about and this is in |
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| 13:12 | because we humans use digits and non primates use digits. To a lot |
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| 13:20 | animals don't use digits as much but lot of our brain area in this |
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| 13:27 | the Samata topic map is not it's not continuous and certain body parts |
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| 13:33 | as hands, face and genitals dedicated dedicated more cortical matter for processing somatic |
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| 13:42 | of information from those particular areas. if you look in the animals that |
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| 13:48 | other things in order to survive and procreate what they do is they whisk |
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| 13:54 | . And if you look in the cortex of the road and rat, |
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| 14:01 | mouse you can look at other Cats. Um Dogs have whiskers to |
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| 14:10 | pad and these whiskers that come in certain number of rows 12345 and a |
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| 14:16 | number of whiskers that will be found every whisker pad. And each one |
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| 14:21 | these whiskers has a representation of the of somatosensory cortex in the form of |
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| 14:27 | barrel. So we call this the cortex. Each barrel represents as a |
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| 14:32 | unit for processing information for that whisker the cortex. And of course there's |
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| 14:37 | functional map that that structural unit can . So we talked about this exquisite |
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| 14:44 | system where you can move whiskers, can inject activity blockers such as glutamate |
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| 14:51 | blockers to block synaptic transmission from You can cut a part of the |
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| 14:58 | off. You can cut the whole off. It's not very very painful |
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| 15:03 | it probably is to some extent but is not brutal manipulation. You can |
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| 15:09 | the whisker so there's all sorts of things you can do to see how |
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| 15:14 | movement of the in the periphery can the brain mask and reshape the barrel |
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| 15:20 | . And so we looked at this the example of C. Two whisker |
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| 15:24 | moved and there's very specific barrel that activated. But of course it's not |
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| 15:29 | the barrel that gets activated with the of the whisker. You then communicate |
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| 15:34 | information to the surrounding structures to the brain areas and creating a whole brain |
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| 15:40 | for the sea to whisker activation. this is E to whisker activation. |
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| 15:46 | also starts from very specific spots, small map that then that activity map |
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| 15:51 | that structure. The barrel spreads throughout interconnected structures in creating this map for |
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| 15:57 | . Two Whisker. And if you the C. Two whisker and you |
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| 16:02 | with dermatologic blockers and block synaptic you basically don't create that map |
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| 16:09 | That map is blocked and E two will still produce that map in |
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| 16:15 | Nonhuman primates. We have a precise map for the somatosensory cortex and the |
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| 16:22 | map is plastic. So if there's loss of a digit that surrounding digit |
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| 16:28 | mass will take over the map or cells that are not being activated. |
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| 16:34 | we also talked about how it doesn't to be as severe as lost. |
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| 16:38 | a constant use of a certain digit result in reshaping plastic lee the |
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| 16:44 | both structurally and functionally from there. went into talk by dr Ramachandran |
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| 16:52 | you can just look up Dr Ramachandran the quality is not that great on |
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| 16:58 | the video points because it's recording of , then just go to ted and |
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| 17:05 | Ramachandra. He discussed three conditions you were tested on them, but just |
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| 17:10 | it was cobb grass syndrome, all . It was uh phantom limb syndrome |
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| 17:20 | it was synesthesia. So crabgrass, talked about the connectivity that's impaired between |
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| 17:26 | facial recognition centers and emotional centers. he used a very simple method of |
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| 17:32 | it, galvanic skin response. If sympathetic system engages, your body temperature |
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| 17:38 | up, uh your conductivity increases because skin actually becomes more moist. So |
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| 17:47 | measured that to determine the emotional response to determine that there is actually missing |
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| 17:53 | response. In the second, the of the lecture, he talked about |
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| 18:00 | phantom limb and this relates to these . Even when the digit or when |
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| 18:06 | hand is lost, there's certain plasticity doesn't necessarily reshuffle itself. It doesn't |
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| 18:14 | happen that you have this reorganization, and functional reorganization. And so in |
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| 18:21 | case, you have still the perception pain or the perception of a crushed |
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| 18:27 | . If that's what you had. he uh talked about plasticity and he |
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| 18:32 | about how to reorganize these maps and the visual input as a very strong |
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| 18:40 | effect on being able to eliminate this of sensory component. So, you |
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| 18:47 | about this cross modal communication and the that we don't understand very well that |
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| 18:53 | in the association areas and can association ultimately reshuffle part of that load, |
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| 19:01 | to speak, critical load. That's to processing different information. The third |
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| 19:08 | that you talked about was synesthesia And there was a genetic component, there |
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| 19:13 | a gene and the trimming that was between the number, color, |
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| 19:20 | color area and that genetic components seem carry the people that have more creative |
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| 19:28 | artists, poets, painters and people engage in more of a metaphorical, |
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| 19:35 | mathematical I guess thinking although for me two can can can overlap. Uh |
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| 19:42 | he talked about angular gyrus and he that there's something very interesting going on |
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| 19:47 | that's something interesting is that the brain plastic and our environments are changing the |
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| 19:53 | , changing the cross modal interpretation is . We're all sinister resides or synesthesia |
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| 20:03 | we associate things we learn by association a lot. So remember all of |
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| 20:09 | interesting parts of angular drivers. Diffuser Dreyer's how they're involved and how you |
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| 20:16 | utilize some simple tests to determine if if your sin, aesthetic or |
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| 20:22 | And he used it on everybody in audience actually had the very last |
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| 20:27 | So this is uh this is a of sensory system component. Uh actually |
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| 20:36 | from it's from you can read I didn't talk about it. I |
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| 20:40 | it to to show his his young face here but he he did some |
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| 20:49 | other very clever and interesting things like example the to to demonstrate that the |
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| 20:56 | was discontinuous feel like used the Q and he was touching the forehead and |
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| 21:00 | were saying I feel sensation in my . You know he was like well |
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| 21:04 | is because you know the map is . So so you can read it |
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| 21:09 | the it's in your book. A of discovery. I won't ask you |
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| 21:15 | that. Well faction. We discussed the odor molecules or Turpin's the odor |
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| 21:25 | basically contact the olfactory cells or the of these olfactory cells. Olfactory receptor |
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| 21:32 | that project onto the factory both through cranial nerve one this is the olfactory |
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| 21:43 | projecting total factor involved. So the molecules will bind and through the G |
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| 21:48 | coupled cascade will influence the influence of and calcium. The mixed kati on |
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| 21:54 | and will regulate chloride by causing the polarization. So actually increase or decrease |
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| 22:01 | levels of chloride in this way. this signal then the odorant signal then |
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| 22:07 | a receptor potential signal. Deep polarization receptor potential. It travels through the |
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| 22:14 | drive into the olfactory receptor cell. produce the action potentials and the olfactory |
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| 22:20 | carries those action potentials Into the secondary cell. So what's interesting in the |
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| 22:27 | epithelium we talked about is just a receptor neurons then when we talked about |
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| 22:33 | , we actually talked about additional structuring olfactory epithelium Specifically as it related to |
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| 22:41 | stew receptors. An invasion of COVID-19 the cns through the olfactory epithelium. |
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| 22:49 | what we talked about the circuit on circuit level and then the processing level |
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| 22:56 | have each receptor cell expressing a single receptor protium here coded by cell |
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| 23:04 | So these different colors that you see an array of colors represent different olfactory |
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| 23:11 | neurons of code for specific protium that responsive or responds in a certain way |
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| 23:18 | specific odor. So green one will very actively to sit tress but it |
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| 23:24 | not respond to Amman smell Red one actively respond to peppermint and amon, |
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| 23:32 | it will not be responsive to sit . And really a single smell, |
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| 23:37 | citrus smile, floral a peppermint salt engage different odorant receptor neurons to different |
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| 23:48 | , different frequency of action potentials or . Yeah, and that information from |
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| 23:54 | olfactory epithelium is communicated into the second olfactory neurons in the olfactory evolved where |
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| 24:01 | have the factory track formation. The order olfactory neurons. Now when they |
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| 24:09 | into the olfactory bulb from the olfactory in each glaucoma literalists you'll have projections |
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| 24:18 | one color of the cells. Remember one color represents a specific order and |
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| 24:23 | that is expressed for that order. to bind. And so you have |
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| 24:28 | of these different family ally and the evolved that will contain information from blue |
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| 24:34 | , from green sauce, red sauce so on. And you can have |
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| 24:39 | shades of blue which means that there's to be maybe similar information processing along |
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| 24:44 | blue protean line. So let's say blue, let's be simple. Will |
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| 24:49 | like blueberry and anything that's similar to will be within that blue shade. |
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| 24:56 | . And of course everything that blueberries only activating blue cells but also green |
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| 25:02 | . To some extent yellow sells everything similar to blueberry. I don't |
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| 25:06 | Blackberry is activating those cells but also different subset of cells. Okay, |
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| 25:12 | now from these projections in the olfactory kill the secondary order neurons from the |
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| 25:19 | bulb go to the olfactory cortex and temporal lobe structures directly. So it |
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| 25:25 | a direct input into the limbic So this is the memory, the |
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| 25:30 | centers that the olfaction can actually And also for the smell perception the |
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| 25:38 | goes through the factory to brickell into medial dorsal nucleus of the power mints |
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| 25:45 | and from there it goes into the court, access the secondary order. |
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| 25:51 | are neurons in the they are right from the olfactory bomb projecting into the |
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| 25:59 | or projecting into the olfactory cortex and related temporal lobe structures which is the |
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| 26:05 | system that will contain elements like hippocampus to memory emotion and the perception of |
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| 26:16 | so to speak is processed through the path lit. And so you have |
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| 26:22 | different cortical maps that each smell So you have a minty smell here |
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| 26:32 | the olfactory bulb and this is the smell map olfactory bulb. And if |
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| 26:37 | have fruity smell, this is the smell. What is the fruity |
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| 26:41 | I don't know, everything is fruity the smells, fruity smells can be |
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| 26:45 | different, you know from uh you , apple to oranges, very different |
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| 26:53 | . It's apples and oranges right? now you have also individual cells in |
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| 27:01 | general I an individual luminaria lights that light up for different, you |
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| 27:05 | fruity, piney cut grass, fruity . But it's really interesting because you |
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| 27:12 | turkeys, there's other molecules that don't create the perception of smell, but |
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| 27:18 | actually have a much broader maps. not just here at the level of |
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| 27:21 | olfactory bulb, it actually this is map for the roses in your |
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| 27:28 | So everywhere you see the red and dot fly it up. These are |
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| 27:32 | parts of the brain that get engaged you smell rose and maybe you start |
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| 27:36 | about roses and then the memories that may bring to you and this is |
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| 27:41 | mint map, rose map, banana . Lemon map. They're somewhat similar |
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| 27:49 | when you look at it. But you look at individual red hotspots |
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| 27:55 | It's quite different, you know like has this red hotspots and rose does |
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| 28:00 | have that these two red spots from there. So it has a different |
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| 28:05 | . This is the Turpin maps that processed. So we talked about the |
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| 28:08 | and then we talked about this pumping other animals and in part humans, |
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| 28:14 | have smell maps, you know, we come up to something, we |
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| 28:18 | okay, we know it's a bathroom we know it's a perfume store or |
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| 28:22 | know, you know, it's a , you know, sewage treatment facility |
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| 28:26 | athletic facility. It's interesting, even national smiles that people have, you |
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| 28:34 | , and animals, other animals have maps. So we rely on a |
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| 28:39 | of visual information, you know, sensory auditory bees have heat maps so |
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| 28:48 | perceive the world differently and have these Niles. Again, if you talk |
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| 28:52 | rodents, you know, they're not to read the street signs, you |
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| 28:57 | , I'm going to say this I'm here at Exxon mobil and this |
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| 29:01 | , they're probably going to smell something that intersection, a dead animal, |
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| 29:05 | know, that's how they're going to that it's there. So they're going |
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| 29:08 | have a smell map my dog when walk her, she knows she got |
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| 29:13 | her corner of the driveway because she like, that's it, her attitude |
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| 29:18 | , you know, and she cannot very well. So this author created |
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| 29:22 | city smell map for Edinburgh of how smells with these different colors represent different |
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| 29:29 | around the city basically, you these dots being a lot of breweries |
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| 29:34 | throughout the city, but parts of city smell like the ocean and the |
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| 29:38 | and the smell like breweries and bakeries smiling industrial production plants and so |
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| 29:44 | Yeah, yeah, she's just she's artist. You can do whatever you |
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| 29:50 | as an artist. So then we about how what are some of the |
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| 29:57 | molecules and how perfume industry has really that this light notes, we call |
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| 30:02 | top noses very volatile short carbon chain . Age 10, Then use heart |
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| 30:09 | 10, 12. And then you the long notes that are kind of |
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| 30:13 | animal Alec body would smells mold like sometimes with linger a long a long |
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| 30:21 | . They they're they're longer carbon chains to 16 carbons. And then over |
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| 30:26 | carbons, we cannot smell dogs even smell uh and cannabinoids because we talk |
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| 30:34 | cannabinoids later, 22 carbons long, cannot smell. And Canada's has very |
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| 30:41 | smell. Some Canada's will smell like , others like dirty socks and there's |
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| 30:46 | gasoline, Others like Citrus. And because the 13s are co expressed between |
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| 30:53 | plants and fruits and flowers And it what it produces. So when when |
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| 31:00 | anybody smiles flower with its cameras rose flower you're smelling 13s and uh |
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| 31:08 | that's that's that's important to know. it's important for the future. Also |
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| 31:13 | think that these are going to be areas, neuroscience is very broad. |
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| 31:17 | think about neuroscience that is applicable in different areas and can make you really |
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| 31:23 | . And even if you are practicing I call bench lab science, you |
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| 31:26 | still be really smart and maybe consult about what they don't understand because large |
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| 31:33 | and large firms are introducing concepts like economics. You know, they have |
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| 31:38 | of people sitting there thinking how they tap into your primal brain. So |
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| 31:42 | will make that click And how do bypass your consciousness somehow. Your |
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| 31:48 | your your your your fiscal responsibility, it is make that click through |
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| 31:55 | you know $99, whatever it But that's your economics. Why why |
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| 32:02 | would people click because of the census get engaged and the cross modality synesthesia |
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| 32:09 | these senses. And now we have social media that know your habits so |
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| 32:14 | know your senses. So now they say okay, we know that so |
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| 32:19 | so likes lavender and soap and this that. You know and and and |
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| 32:25 | they can derive that data but understanding the brain surface process that what's the |
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| 32:31 | of the brain circuits is really important very interesting now with this sense of |
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| 32:38 | during Covid a lot of people experienced of sense of smell and we talked |
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| 32:43 | it when we talked with Covid I'm not going to review it. |
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| 32:46 | we talked about the loss of sense smell and we talked about invasion of |
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| 32:51 | 19 3 ace two receptors into the epithelium and the loss of these nerve |
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| 33:00 | . So luckily we regenerate them. for some people the inflammation may not |
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| 33:06 | in significant loss. So they regain sense of smell in 123 few days |
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| 33:12 | others it can take 23 months sometimes it's horrible because it really changes how |
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| 33:19 | perceive the world. I lost sense smell like I said in five years |
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| 33:24 | times did to viral infections of the because the cold and flu viruses can |
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| 33:31 | result in anosmia. And when you the sense of smile it's it's really |
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| 33:38 | only just you don't smell it's actually psychologically devastating. Is that it like |
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| 33:45 | never gonna smell again. Like imagine be able to touch and feel what |
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| 33:49 | touching was like what? That's the thing. And then the taste and |
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| 33:54 | the taste goes you know the salty and we still have some sweet |
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| 33:58 | You're tasting spicy stuff and you're not spicy stuff and you're like whoa that's |
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| 34:05 | that's very different the way this cross understanding goes, it changes your perception |
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| 34:11 | it could be depressing. Really So people that don't taste anything or |
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| 34:17 | . They go for texture. You and that helps them because they are |
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| 34:21 | different textures and they can touch and the touch still. Okay so that |
|
| 34:28 | our lecture on the whole faction. me take a little pause here hide |
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| 34:36 | you look at the slide of first how much did you know and how |
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| 34:42 | do you think You know now you or at least you know you've got |
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| 34:46 | good insight and a glimpse. Even you don't remember the equilibrium potential for |
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| 34:53 | at this stage. I think that lot of things and even in this |
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| 34:57 | section kind of a broad something's Like if we're talking about olfaction we're |
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| 35:02 | about brain maps olfactory brain maps. talking about a factory circus. We're |
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| 35:09 | about covid 19 and invasion of covid . Which is really really relevant. |
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| 35:13 | I think a good science needs to relevant science with what is happening. |
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| 35:18 | important to know the history which we and you forgot by now already |
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| 35:22 | So you know you did it But so now we have this understanding |
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| 35:27 | the individual cells of circuits of networks lobes of gross structures. Individual and |
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| 35:35 | structures different levels. And what networks they produce oscillations of different frequencies And |
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| 35:41 | can record these oscillations using electroencephalogram and we record these different oscillations. And |
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| 35:48 | . G. Is recorded on the of the brain. I'm sorry on |
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| 35:51 | surface of the scalp. But intra you can actually have recordings done on |
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| 35:57 | surface of the brain that is in extreme cases of neurosurgery. And you |
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| 36:02 | see that these different rhythms with the , beta delta delta gamma, their |
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| 36:07 | rhythms. That means that when you these caps and recording the activity, |
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| 36:10 | activities synchronized activities of cells will fall one of these frequency regimes that are |
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| 36:16 | frequency regimes. They represent different behavioral . Drowsy versus asleep versus deep deep |
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| 36:24 | versus excitement. The combination of the neurons, the complexity and the diversity |
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| 36:32 | you see in individual circuits. Their to produce different frequencies of action |
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| 36:38 | It's basically this dialect of individual neurons coming together and making a choir or |
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| 36:45 | orchestra that can be recorded on the of the brain is strong enough. |
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| 36:51 | talked about the ethnicity of the circle life versus panta rei. So we |
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| 36:57 | a little bit about philosophical understanding and system of rhythms. And how is |
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| 37:03 | system of rhythms can be mathematically And so if you aligned all of |
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| 37:08 | dominant frequencies, dominant rhythms of the log on the land scale actually have |
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| 37:15 | separated by a whole full integer. need different rhythms. Multiple tasks, |
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| 37:20 | behavioral states. We also need circuits produce multiple rhythms at the same time |
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| 37:30 | . Mm hmm. In Apple A. This is not the slides |
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| 37:35 | we viewed actually. I love Okay, so when you record |
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| 37:43 | E. G. S again, recording the signal on the outside of |
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| 37:46 | scalp and it's mostly activity from the dendrites of parameter cells. Of course |
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| 37:51 | collections of neurons, the circuits of that are synchronized, synchronized strong enough |
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| 37:57 | unison. So that information gets filtered all of the pierre rock madura |
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| 38:04 | skull and scalp still reaches the electorate the outside of the brain mountain basil |
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| 38:10 | and so synchronized activity inputs. And large numbers of cells will result in |
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| 38:17 | dominant rhythm recorded by E. And there are different rhythms and these |
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| 38:23 | are present in different animals. Not of the animals will have all of |
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| 38:27 | rhythms that means that their circuits are but the ability to process information are |
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| 38:33 | decoded recorded recorded uh and recall it different. You have these spindle rhythms |
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| 38:41 | ripples that are very fast that are for learning and memory are produced in |
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| 38:47 | york cortex and hippocampus. And also circuits have the ability to have slow |
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| 38:53 | and on top of those slow You can have fast rhythms riding on |
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| 38:57 | of them. So the ability to simultaneously at two or three different |
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| 39:06 | Not necessarily resonant frequencies but just at frequencies. Epilepsy is a rhythmic disorder |
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| 39:14 | ultimately to diagnose seizures and epilepsy you E. G. And in some |
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| 39:20 | when E. G. Recordings don't anything in a couple of hours and |
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| 39:25 | say a patient is experiencing seizures or something something at night. Let me |
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| 39:31 | that patient to stay for the night some extreme cases where they cannot figure |
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| 39:37 | what is going on and the medications not helping. They may have the |
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| 39:42 | for long term E. G. which is sometimes up to a week |
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| 39:47 | wearing the cap living in the hospital to monitor the activity to find out |
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| 39:51 | did the seizures start. They're prevalent Children, they're prevalent and older |
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| 39:58 | There is many different reasons why c come about, such as tumors, |
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| 40:03 | genetics, metabolic dysfunction infections, viral , bacterial infection, meningitis encephalitis. |
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| 40:13 | all of the things we talked about and encephalitis. When we talk about |
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| 40:17 | infection too. And with covid if you have encephalitis, you you |
|
| 40:24 | a chance to develop seizures and potentially seizures which is repeated seizures and epilepsy |
|
| 40:30 | different types of epilepsy, ease vascular and environmental factors. From the genetics |
|
| 40:38 | we looked at this channel that we from the very beginning of the |
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| 40:42 | both educated sodium channel that has four units six trans membrane segments as ford's |
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| 40:48 | , educator. S five and six the pore loop that regulates the ions |
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| 40:54 | in and out of the south and of these red dots that you see |
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| 40:59 | mutations that you can find on both sodium channels that will result in |
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| 41:04 | M. E. I, which for severe maya clonic epilepsy of |
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| 41:10 | Multiple mutations along the channel. This educated sodium channel can result in sME |
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| 41:17 | sme I is also known as Job syndrome, D R A G |
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| 41:22 | T. All of these green dots you're seeing here are different mutations and |
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| 41:28 | amino acid sequences. Right? Because are protein channels, they will cause |
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| 41:33 | epilepsy with fibra seizures. Plus, we discussed, the difference between generalized |
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| 41:39 | is in partial epilepsy. So partial epilepsy is two and fibra seizures are |
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| 41:46 | induced seizures. And so what We talked about how Children infants, |
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| 41:51 | they have an infection, if they fever and their body temperature goes up |
|
| 41:56 | 104 why do you go to the room, why do you put the |
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| 42:00 | in the eyes back? 104 hiring because they may have a seizure and |
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| 42:06 | hypothermia induced seizure and it is It's the most common type of seizure |
|
| 42:11 | Children will have. You may have hypothermia induced fibrosis seizure and that's it |
|
| 42:16 | be too because they had significant infection flu or something like that. And |
|
| 42:21 | it. But if you have a along this voltage gated sodium channel now |
|
| 42:27 | susceptible Two seizures. Even if the temperature, let's say goes up to |
|
| 42:34 | , You may experience a seizure and what? You don't have to have |
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| 42:38 | fever in order for your body temperature go up two degrees. You can |
|
| 42:43 | working out moving in the heat and body temperature may go up because of |
|
| 42:49 | . Of course you have regulation but still have these fluctuations and now you |
|
| 42:54 | abnormal channels and these channels will resolve febrile seizures. And we discussed that |
|
| 43:01 | of the Children and have generalized Annapolis febrile seizures, plus even the hope |
|
| 43:05 | the cold months to return and winter to return as the incidence of seizures |
|
| 43:12 | in the cold months in these So there is an imbalance of excitation |
|
| 43:17 | inhibition on the broad scale that can viewed in epilepsy. Too much |
|
| 43:22 | too little of inhibition typically. And there is not enough inhibition, then |
|
| 43:28 | want to boost Gaba and we want dampen glutamate activity. We target glutamate |
|
| 43:34 | mostly Gaba receptors actually to boost gaba try to balance the scale. If |
|
| 43:41 | is not inhibitory check, that means excitatory maps that we saw that spread |
|
| 43:47 | nicely from the sea to whisker or else that is activated in the |
|
| 43:52 | Those maps get disorganized, They spread over and seizure activity can spread throughout |
|
| 43:58 | entire brain and this is an example generalized seizure where you can see that |
|
| 44:03 | electorate is involved and is experiencing seizure activity in these high frequency fluctuations, |
|
| 44:11 | seizures. You have loss of you have to lama cortical circuits that |
|
| 44:16 | involved in order to lose the consciousness strong connectivity as you saw the |
|
| 44:21 | cortical and cortical thalamic connectivity back as , generalized seizures. A Grand mall |
|
| 44:27 | petite mall. Grand mal seizures will oral loss of consciousness, tonic clonic |
|
| 44:32 | as well as plastic, total Petite mal seizures are more common than |
|
| 44:37 | . Young Children, young teenagers are absence seizures that do not have chronic |
|
| 44:42 | components. So you can use a without having the contractions that you would |
|
| 44:48 | with Grand Mall and those are blind in space sometimes for just eight |
|
| 44:54 | But it could be devastating if the is doing something at that time. |
|
| 44:59 | partial versus complex partial. They do necessarily involve large areas of the |
|
| 45:05 | Uh Simple partial could be usually confined one hot spot. So you would |
|
| 45:10 | see all of the electrodes light up one part of the brain, light |
|
| 45:13 | from the VC electrodes and complex partial have an impaired awareness and not, |
|
| 45:19 | necessarily loss of consciousness is not just , I'm not exactly aware of what |
|
| 45:24 | going on. But I was I conscious and I was awake, you |
|
| 45:29 | , susceptible brain structures to damage by as well as other neurological disorders such |
|
| 45:34 | alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia is hippocampus and york cortex. So when Ramachandran said |
|
| 45:41 | something interesting to allow an angular I think there's something very interesting to |
|
| 45:45 | along in hippocampus, it's trying to a six layer structure. The proper |
|
| 45:50 | . I think that's what's going It's referred to as as our key |
|
| 45:55 | , hippocampus or archaic cortex versus the . The new cortex, in my |
|
| 46:01 | , it's something interesting going on It's also highly susceptible to diseases, |
|
| 46:06 | diseases, highly susceptible to seizures, my neurological diseases and it's at the |
|
| 46:12 | of memory and memory. Recall the memory, not the procedural. So |
|
| 46:17 | can do things, not remember but I would rather remember everything. |
|
| 46:21 | would not be able to do things don't know. So now you have |
|
| 46:26 | example of order onset in the patient usually activation of several electors. And |
|
| 46:31 | you have generalized seizure you will have of these massive parts of the brain |
|
| 46:37 | the folk I the fourth side of focal points that initiates the seizures after |
|
| 46:45 | be neocortex susceptible structures can be the . That means they propagate those seizures |
|
| 46:51 | if they keep occurring in the specific of the brain, those parts of |
|
| 46:56 | brain burn and died in euro literally there's electrical storm that's ongoing. |
|
| 47:04 | Gabba treatments like Benzodiazepines and anything that stimulate inhibition is a very common pharmaceutical |
|
| 47:12 | , glutamate and glee involvement is being at very carefully if you recall glee |
|
| 47:17 | involved in the control of glutamate and when there is enough of inflammation glia |
|
| 47:23 | can become an abnormal release of So you can have a real basis |
|
| 47:27 | epilepsy is it's not necessarily all Oh, glia is also intricately involved |
|
| 47:32 | the synaptic transmission here and then we down to cannabis and cannabinoids because besides |
|
| 47:39 | pharmaceuticals, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, steroids we've discussed. We actually when we |
|
| 47:45 | gaba a receptor transmission, the inhibitor neural transmission, cannabis and cannabinoids have |
|
| 47:53 | used for treatment of epilepsy. We about the endocannabinoid system consisting of synthesizing |
|
| 48:00 | and the cannabinoid molecules. Cannabinoid receptors also degrading in the cannabinoid enzymes. |
|
| 48:06 | CB one receptors that are located predominantly neurons will regulate neural transmission. CV |
|
| 48:14 | actors that are predominantly located on glee specifically a micro glia will control other |
|
| 48:20 | . So what other processes? slower processes may be something to do |
|
| 48:24 | glutamate synthesis maybe in micro glia, know it has to do with a |
|
| 48:29 | of pro inflammatory cytokine release regulation. , so if you activate CB one |
|
| 48:35 | during the economic system, you can excitation and inhibition. You can actually |
|
| 48:41 | both excitation and inhibition and that's why the ages for thousands of years. |
|
| 48:49 | , cannabis and cannabinoids have been used treat epilepsy. So we looked at |
|
| 48:54 | account. The case study from 18 by dr William o'Shaughnessy that described the |
|
| 49:02 | of a young child with spasms which infantile spasms. It's actually childhood epilepsy |
|
| 49:10 | how tight trading the concentration had and fact that both habituation to that concentration |
|
| 49:16 | also on relieving the child from from convulsions that the child was having. |
|
| 49:23 | this is an extract that is taken the plant. This extracts were in |
|
| 49:30 | Pharmacopeia all the way through the middle the 20th century. And US pharmacies |
|
| 49:37 | cannabis extracts at the beginning of the century. Of course there was a |
|
| 49:40 | of other crap in their poisons that being formed and not regulated, but |
|
| 49:45 | was also botanical real extracts that people and prepared carefully. 100 years |
|
| 49:51 | the same exercise became a demand And then the the turn of the |
|
| 49:55 | century, you had a big thrust Children that had no ability to control |
|
| 50:03 | seizures with packs and multiple cocktails of epileptic pharmaceutical seizure medications. They that |
|
| 50:13 | was and said we're going to use Canada stuff that's been written about in |
|
| 50:18 | for centuries. But there was no much research on it. Okay, |
|
| 50:23 | charlotte figi became almost a central her parents army that's moved to colorado |
|
| 50:30 | treated her with CBD and THC to her with seizures and to win her |
|
| 50:35 | other pharmaceuticals. So th seems may a higher effect than Benzodiazepines cause the |
|
| 50:42 | effect. Uh and for a child be experiencing either, it's probably not |
|
| 50:48 | , but maybe there's one that is harmful over the other. So in |
|
| 50:54 | case, by the way, alcohol to gather receptors. Okay, so |
|
| 51:01 | we say drunk, it's because it replicate that similar state when ethanol bonds |
|
| 51:07 | gather receptors. Unfortunately, charlotte has last year. So she was she |
|
| 51:14 | had her seizures under control for a time. She was almost like a |
|
| 51:18 | child for medical cannabis and CBD and and she passed them. But there's |
|
| 51:25 | parents that are using this and there's research that's coming out of these two |
|
| 51:34 | case of solid figure, there's an here, the case of medical marijuana |
|
| 51:39 | epilepsy by her treating physician Edward Ma he illustrated that she needed both THC |
|
| 51:45 | CBD and that's why they moved to because the Chatham colorado had legal THC |
|
| 51:51 | medical use, as long as the will prescribe an overseeing physician agreed to |
|
| 51:57 | . And he demonstrates in this article by raising um THC was necessary and |
|
| 52:05 | raising CBD levels, there is a control of seizures too. So, |
|
| 52:10 | it's different cases for different people that more articles that came out and although |
|
| 52:16 | THC the molecule DELTA nine THC because , you will see a lot of |
|
| 52:23 | right now coming out of delta Delta 10 THC oxide and all of |
|
| 52:28 | . These are synthetic, semi synthetic . Okay. And we don't know |
|
| 52:32 | about it actually, but we know DELTA nine THC was isolated and DELTA |
|
| 52:38 | THC has a lot of therapeutic We don't know what DELTA eight dozen |
|
| 52:43 | fast therapeutic therapeutic effects. And we that synthetic cannabinoids can be dangerous. |
|
| 52:49 | are synthetic phenomenons which DELTA eight it's probably semi dangerous in some |
|
| 52:55 | So we had despite the plant isolated which came from Hashish, which came |
|
| 53:01 | the plant concentrate just like William O'Shaughnessy . Um was it despite that the |
|
| 53:13 | medications that were approved by the FDA synthetic. So I'm not saying the |
|
| 53:19 | in opulence don't have therapeutic properties but is delta nine synthetic, it's not |
|
| 53:25 | it's synthetic Canaveral, delta line synthetic . And it's also not the best |
|
| 53:32 | from patients. They prefer natural derived THC to maternal and settlement. But |
|
| 53:43 | hasn't been a study done because the that study is done and it shows |
|
| 53:48 | planned around THC it's tolerated better by and synthetic DELTA nine THC game over |
|
| 53:57 | for for these for these drugs. yes, you know, treatments for |
|
| 54:04 | conditions inside the plates. two No plans. So it's like a |
|
| 54:23 | you need to decipher it though. , it's not gasses it. But |
|
| 54:35 | joking because when you say abbreviation is difficult to know lateral eyes up to |
|
| 54:45 | the charges. So it's basically it's epilepsy. It's it's chronic epilepsy, |
|
| 54:51 | just maybe a mild form of not severe seizures. But so let's |
|
| 54:57 | at this right now. There's plant medications Sativex when the big smalls and |
|
| 55:04 | the dialects, which is cannabidiol, is only prescribed front asp asthmatic and |
|
| 55:11 | for multiple sclerosis. Sure. Right , Sativex is in clinical trials for |
|
| 55:18 | , wants to Since 2005. It's in UK and maybe 25 different |
|
| 55:24 | but not us. Uh cannabidiol ethnic is 10% CBD solution is anticonvulsant. |
|
| 55:32 | the only pharmaceutical, if you go any like Kelsey Seybold doctor or anybody |
|
| 55:39 | at the medical center to say I the pharmaceutical drug. Every pharmaceutical, |
|
| 55:47 | only plant derived drugs that you see 10% CBD. It's mixed with |
|
| 55:53 | some strawberry flavoring, sesame seed Uh and it is for dR |
|
| 56:03 | So this is for severe seizures. Dravet syndrome is the same as |
|
| 56:08 | My chronic upwards of infancy, Leonard's start epilepsy is is very similar to |
|
| 56:14 | spasms. What DR O'Shaughnessy was studying this extract. So more research, |
|
| 56:21 | more research coming out on how THC CBD can affect different seizures if you |
|
| 56:28 | look at what has been studied And much has been done with a plant |
|
| 56:34 | next year. There's going to be research coming out in the plan because |
|
| 56:37 | federal government approved research on the plan another 11 facilities around the country and |
|
| 56:44 | a bill to approve research for the products directly into the university rather than |
|
| 56:51 | it from the national Institute of drug and their growers that are certified by |
|
| 56:59 | department of D. A. Okay so there's gonna be more research |
|
| 57:05 | holistically now if you took like remember talking about review a systematic review and |
|
| 57:12 | at this THC helping with seizures from and 10% of the cases it can |
|
| 57:17 | broken repulsive in some cases it's What type of apple? It's what |
|
| 57:26 | of mutation is it? The sodium mutation is at least one other channels |
|
| 57:31 | channel that we talked about is that calcium channel mutation that has not been |
|
| 57:36 | and sorted out specifically. And you at all of the data on |
|
| 57:41 | it's clearly anticonvulsants, there's no pro activity that has been reported with CBD |
|
| 57:49 | in some instances obviously people need both well actually th th c and some |
|
| 58:06 | molecules, some other cannabinoids is emerging a sleep aid can happen all CBM |
|
| 58:12 | combination with Benadryl. People use it a sleep aid sometimes too. And |
|
| 58:18 | we discussed this very briefly won't be on it but just so you have |
|
| 58:21 | understanding that there are national programs that is not some sort of a quackery |
|
| 58:26 | on. There is actually a parallel system that's being developed in what I |
|
| 58:32 | an FDA pharmaceutical system on the national in Germany. Canada's assaulted pharmacy subsidized |
|
| 58:38 | insurance in this country. We have state by state and Canada you have |
|
| 58:44 | holistically in the whole country to so me take a brief break here in |
|
| 58:49 | of me that the best way to this. Do you have these lives |
|
| 58:57 | ? So we will we will have basically rely for this portion rely on |
|
| 59:04 | recorded lecture because it would not be for me. I don't have the |
|
| 59:09 | on me now to walk you through slides that I didn't address before. |
|
| 59:15 | did talk about the endocannabinoid system and did talk about different elements in Canada's |
|
| 59:22 | . We talked about these differences between uh low THC cannabis or industrial |
|
| 59:28 | high THC cannabis or marijuana and synthetic , illegal cannabinoids that are synthetic powder |
|
| 59:36 | to extend with with with plant matter these tri cones that produce cannabinoids. |
|
| 59:45 | so we talked about the major dominant and how the plant produces specific versions |
|
| 59:51 | cannabinoids. CBD A. CBD A A. And with Ethan Tarbox elation |
|
| 59:56 | become neutral phenomena list. And this the major CB one receptor. The |
|
| 60:01 | why we want to talk about CB and CB two receptors and you may |
|
| 60:05 | to review those lectures is because it's most abundant G protein coupled receptor in |
|
| 60:10 | brain. So there's something interesting going with C. D. Receptors in |
|
| 60:14 | brain. These three major cannabinoids. of them stem from cdg the mother |
|
| 60:20 | all Cannavino is just three major cannabinoids most prevalent when actually most sold on |
|
| 60:26 | market THC CBD and CBD. They with CB one receptor different with THC |
|
| 60:33 | an agonist. CPG is an antagonist CBD is a negative al hysteric |
|
| 60:39 | which essentially dampens activity, controls the that door opens when it opens |
|
| 60:45 | faster or slower, wider and narrower so on. And the turbines that |
|
| 60:51 | talked about. Olfaction processes of different that are found in Canada's in addition |
|
| 60:57 | different types of cannabinoids. So there's main cannabinoids that we're discussing here, |
|
| 61:04 | there's dozens of cannabinoids that we are discussing. Those functions are not |
|
| 61:09 | they expressed by the planet much lower . And in the future we may |
|
| 61:14 | more about that information. So this some older review but it is still |
|
| 61:20 | from 2017. Again showing this is quackery when the scientists from the the |
|
| 61:29 | Academy of Sciences Engineering and Medicine sat together and said what's going on with |
|
| 61:34 | cannabis in California since 1996 In And then in 2017 they're like, |
|
| 61:42 | actually there is conclusive evidence that the , absolute chronic pain, cannabis, |
|
| 61:49 | cannabis plants moderate evidence for adults and limited evidence and the reason why there |
|
| 61:55 | limited evidence is because pharmaceutical specifically when are developing a drug you're developing a |
|
| 62:02 | for a condition. We are developing dialects for severe pediatric epilepsy is potentially |
|
| 62:12 | epilepsy is that have mutation in the channel. Mhm. You're not developing |
|
| 62:17 | for this and for this and for and for that. But with medical |
|
| 62:21 | and Kennedy noise is different because the are telling us that you can use |
|
| 62:26 | for 100 and 50 different conditions. state regulators decided that in Texas. |
|
| 62:32 | in the state of Texas, if go department of Public safety, state |
|
| 62:48 | control the program and there's laws and and if you look at at qualifying |
|
| 63:05 | , they lead me to another This is one of the users, |
|
| 63:15 | producers. These are the conditions, asbestos, city LS, terminal |
|
| 63:21 | all cancer. Alzheimer's Parkinson's Huntington's post . You want to see this |
|
| 63:31 | There's all of the conditions here. was. Does that mean we have |
|
| 63:39 | on progressive Korea's and prion disease and and CBD or Canada's even we |
|
| 63:47 | So this is just the reality of is happening around us. And I |
|
| 63:52 | everybody to be really super smart taking course and understand it very well so |
|
| 63:59 | you can deal with it on a level and take advantage of it in |
|
| 64:05 | professional level. Okay, so with , we're concluding the review. I'm |
|
| 64:10 | going to review Covid 19. We're out of time, appreciate everyone being |
|
| 64:14 | , appreciate everyone being on zoom. wishing everyone good luck on the test |
|
| 64:20 | Tuesday and good luck with the other that you're taking the finals. |
|
| 64:26 | and hey, we survived the we'll survive on the crown to version |
|
| 64:35 | I'm wishing you everybody a good end their semester. Take care, |
|
| 64:39 | |
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