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GEOL7323 Borehole Geophysics - Day2 02-18-2023 PM
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00:01 Oh, great. Hi Stephanie. ? How was lunch? It was
00:13 . I had million chicken nuggets because what my daughter was eating. So
00:20 , so she's able to eat kind standard food now. Yeah, she
00:27 uh she eats everything. We she does have a peanut allergy so we
00:32 eat like peanut butter and stuff like . But she eats everything.
00:37 good. See that that peanut allergies of uh interesting. So you kind
00:45 tested her and she just didn't react well to it. Well, it
00:50 funny because when she was a um because you can't give peanut butter
00:56 they're like, or start trying until six months and she was a
00:59 I used to eat peanuts and blow on her to see if she
01:03 react to like, the smell and ever happened. But when we tried
01:08 butter for the first time, her face everything she swelled up. So
01:15 her eyes like swelled shut. She a rash all over her body.
01:18 it's a pretty intense allergy. So have and all of that.
01:24 That's amazing. I don't know where peanut allergy came from. I um
01:30 just wonder if it's kind of gotten the system or whether did people have
01:33 always, I don't know because everybody me, like, make sure you
01:38 , don't like refrain from eating things you're pregnant because they're like more likely
01:42 develop an allergy to certain things and of my favorite snacks. I used
01:47 love bananas with peanut butter on Yeah, she is extremely allergic to
01:53 and peanut butter. So yeah, don't have nobody else is allergic to
01:58 like in my entire family as far we can, kind of think that
02:01 has a peanut allergy. So I no idea where this came from.
02:05 , you know what, she might to that too. I hope
02:08 We have to go to her doctor year and they test, we do
02:11 we have an allergist. So every they test her with the peanut whatever
02:18 to see if it's getting worse or . So uh hopefully it'll get
02:23 So I hope so. Yeah. , definitely. Oh good. Well
02:28 know you've been chatting a little bit employment and stuff like that. So
02:36 I was just remembering some work that did a while back that was
02:41 I don't can you, can you that? Yeah. So I plotted
02:46 all kinds of things, there was couple of years ago and just how
02:51 and everything relates to resource prices and good news is there when there's more
02:57 in the system, there's typically more available. So and then uh you
03:06 , I also plotted up how old are and when you graduated and so
03:14 know, as you can kind of the people who are born in uh
03:22 graduating in the, in the 70s 80's are now 65 or so.
03:32 you can see this is kind of demographic, so Younger people who have
03:39 and say 2020 are down here and the resource prices there. So you
03:47 see that really People have followed where jobs are naturally, and then the
03:56 were in those places. So if were 65, there were a lot
04:01 jobs way back then, and that's the people are there and you can
04:05 of see how it, how it . Likewise, we're going through
04:12 finishing off this null, whether the prices were pretty low and jobs were
04:17 available and most people were not And now that's changing. So,
04:25 I would say there's a nice uh nice opportunity in here for people who
04:30 around 30 years old and younger. was just looking also at petroleum
04:40 You know, there's been such huge in unemployment. And this is the
04:45 of students, probably a guy at tech profit there, but there was
04:53 some recent trends just from published in journal Petroleum Technology, that look like
04:59 is the number of students, this petroleum engineering, but you can see
05:04 so few students. Mhm. And resource prices are high. So that's
05:11 going to be good for students who still there anyway. Just a couple
05:17 other numbers. So I think, think it's actually an opportune time to
05:20 in geophysics that will play out in next couple of years. Yeah,
05:28 , but so a couple other things are just related to our Warhol
05:36 you know, it's amazing that we're following Elon musk whether we like it
05:40 not and but one of adventures as would probably know is the boring company
05:47 the boring company is right in line what we're talking about borehole geophysics and
05:53 idea was to, to build tunnels I think he's obviously onto something um
06:01 is not new, we've been building for a long time, but when
06:06 look at it, most of our and getting around cities obviously they're pretty
06:10 . So you can either start as said, to get off the
06:15 you've either got to go above or , that's pretty obvious. So his
06:22 is one of the theories is let's go below. And so the idea
06:25 to be boring tunnels underneath all the . Now, if you live in
06:28 york city or something, it's already or some of the big cities like
06:34 , but a lot of our other don't have that much underground infrastructure.
06:41 um it's pretty interesting my feeling is there's not so much for cars
06:48 but for goods, so you can smaller diameter tunnels that are all over
06:54 place. So you could deliver goods and forth because I think there's going
06:59 be limited opportunity to have drones, know, people are talking about amazon
07:03 and delivery and everything, but I think that there are a lot of
07:08 involved with drones flying around all over city with weather and everything else.
07:12 I'm not so sure that drones are to be the way to go,
07:16 underground transport for smaller diameter, like ft diameter tunnels, I could see
07:23 definitely happening. So here's a, thinking is that you could have all
07:28 of tunnels that would take goods and from one point in the city to
07:32 other, really fast through small diameter . So again, in this regard
07:39 , we're gonna need to know a of borehole geophysics and assess the
07:44 assess drilling. And so I think may see a lot of this,
07:50 application of, of moral stuff. you can imagine with amazon deliveries,
08:06 you had delivery stations, say every of miles you just put the from
08:10 warehouse, say west of the city Katie, you can see some enormous
08:14 out there, suppose you just do a product in a shoot goes down
08:20 like the tubes in the old battleships department stores. The good would be
08:26 across the city in a couple of , come up at another station that
08:31 be local and you could deliver that fast. So, um, I
08:35 there might be a good place for diameter tunnels and lots of work for
08:41 to do because we know about The other thing I mentioned a couple
08:47 just to have a quick look. there'll be underground transportation. We already
08:56 do that with pipelines and everything but also more and more underground
09:03 So for example, we hear we some about the Strategic Petroleum Reserve and
09:11 are several big sites that are around and you can see those, those
09:23 are all in caverns. And so there were huge amounts of oil starting
09:31 caverns and one's not too far from . Uh huh couple of them were
09:36 texas once in Louisiana, But they massive amounts over upwards of actually 700
09:44 I think 800 million barrels of Now this is getting drawn down a
09:50 , I think with the current administration down and selling oil into the market
09:57 it gets too expensive. So I there was just another 20 or 30
10:01 barrels that were going to be sold the next week or two. But
10:06 is, this is what it's all . And so with us too,
10:10 knowing where to put these storage caverns and how to put them in,
10:15 just a lot of additional possibility for storage because this real estate gets more
10:21 more expensive. You can see the ground facilities just take a lot of
10:29 , but these underground caverns are they can be 1000 ft tall.
10:34 if, if you look at some of those towers are probably,
10:42 don't know, maybe 500 600 800 high. So when you look at
10:45 , one of the downtown towers, about as big as a cavern caverns
10:49 be even better, but that's around size, so huge volumes that can
10:53 stored underground. Um it can be , certainly a lot cheaper than building
10:58 these facilities and then you don't need stop cluttering up the landscape, you
11:02 put it underground. So, lots possibilities with underground storage. Now,
11:08 other thing is that we, as talked about, there's a move to
11:12 a big hydrogen economy and especially around , there's already a fair amount of
11:22 that's being made. And in your world, The way hydra generates two
11:28 made is typically from methane. So take, it's called reforming the
11:34 So you take methane and basically heat up with water. So you uh
11:41 up methane with water and then the Combines with the water and produces H
11:51 plus carbon dioxide. So, and is manufactured around here. So,
12:00 that's the idea and then there are storage and pipeline facilities here. So
12:06 pure hydrogen H two is being used it's used for a lot of things
12:12 hydrogenated foods and oils. You were about oil, balsamic vinegar, oil
12:19 stuff that a lot of that will uh have hydrogen components. Um,
12:27 part of rubber, hydrogen was used balkanize the rubber and do all kinds
12:32 things. So hydrogen has been used lot. It hasn't been used for
12:36 that much. It's been used for manufacturing except for rockets. So if
12:45 look at all the launches some of big rockets, they use liquid
12:51 Um, and once you've got liquid , you can combine it with oxygen
12:57 basically burn it and it's enormously So we just talked about creating hydrogen
13:06 a lot of energy to create the because you've got to heat the water
13:09 to 1000 or 1100° or something. then that extremely hot steam is combined
13:15 methane and it strips the hydrogen off methane to become pure hydrogen and then
13:21 oxygenates the carbon to become Ceo So the reaction is pretty simple to
13:26 hydrogen. Then you just put it reverse. You take the liquid
13:34 say in a rocket, liquid hydrogen liquid oxygen and just combine them and
13:39 explodes and produces a lot of thrust water. So the opposite of
13:48 another way to think about it is just take water, you, you
13:53 a big current through an electrical current that electrical currents enough to separate the
14:00 and the oxygen. So electrolysis, might have done that in high
14:04 Um, you just take water, a big current through it. And
14:08 enough, you can get hydrogen and that requires energy. On the other
14:13 , you take the hydrogen and the and you put them together and they
14:18 up, they recombine to become They really want to do that
14:24 And so you burn hydrogen with oxygen pirate, burn it and it just
14:32 water. So as you might the big thinking is that if you
14:38 generate hydrogen in some kind of clean green way, like with wind
14:46 solar panels or nuclear power. So you've got a big electricity source,
14:50 you could just electoral eyes water and hydrogen. And the hydrogen now is
14:57 as an energy source. But the is to use that spare renewable energy
15:06 create hydrogen ship and store the And then you've got it as a
15:11 good energy source. So that's the with this hydrogen economy. The issue
15:18 course, is that hydrogen is just any other fuel. You have to
15:24 it somehow. And that's the whole with this renewable world. And most
15:30 the renewables, the electricity, you directly store electricity except in batteries and
15:40 are heavy and expensive. And so can do it to a degree.
15:48 a really industrial base of battery storage enormous and really expensive. So with
15:58 excess renewable energy, you'd like to it in a form where it's readily
16:04 and you can store a lot of . And that's hydrogen. So that's
16:10 the key thinking there. And the around here we're proposing that we start
16:16 salt caverns. So that's some of idea. Likewise with other gasses looking
16:25 the subsurface the for hydrogen production wells well as any production. The idea
16:33 that if we're producing excess C. , you you want to take care
16:40 that C. 02. And so idea is can we capture the
16:44 02 from big emitters and then sequestering is kind of like me thinking just
16:53 be hygienic. I think we talked it. You know when a corn
16:58 , rice farmer produces crops, we them. We produce affluent as you'll
17:03 regularly from your little daughter and all us. And don't shoot the rice
17:09 , we just take care of We just have hygienic facilities,
17:14 So likewise with CO two, if that bad, which I don't really
17:18 . But assuming that we do need take care of it um just do
17:22 hygienically in sanitation and reinject it or what we need to do. So
17:28 the idea that we would evaluate the capture the Ceo to either direct air
17:35 or from a flue stream in a plant or something like that and then
17:41 use it the C. C. . S. Carbon capture utilization
17:45 Use it to provide admissible oil floods sequester it put it in deep in
17:52 earth. So again we need this lot of the subsurface measurements to be
17:58 to do that. As I mentioned CC US utilization we can use
18:05 02 as an inject into to lower viscosity of oil. So uh what
18:15 have done, you can see a diagram here we take C. 02
18:20 it into an oil reservoir and then mixes miserable meaning mixing it missed it
18:29 with the oil dissolves in the oil then it lowers the viscosity of the
18:35 . And then we can produce more . And you capture the c.
18:38 . 2 with the oil production and re injected. So you've got A
18:46 disposal of c. 0. 2 then you're also producing more oil
18:52 0. 2 just to sequester it a cost. So that's why it's
18:56 little less exciting. You know oil find oil and we uh we can
19:07 money from its economic, It produces lot more money and energy than that
19:12 to find it. So the really oil places uh the amount of energy
19:18 to find and produce oil is about of the amount of energy that's released
19:23 we use that found oil. So with co. two. If we
19:33 actually make some money from co. rather than just having to spend money
19:37 sequester it. That's better. So one of, excuse me, one
19:43 the ways that people can try to money or to utilize the C.
19:47 . U. S. In um . c. 0. 2.
19:52 likewise we can just these are just bunch of details and here was the
19:58 that we presented just a little bit also with wells. So this was
20:03 South Houston. We were approached a of years ago by by a company
20:07 had bought this little piece of land in the south of the city actually
20:13 too far from here near Pierce So they bought this piece of land
20:21 15 acres but it was a legacy . So as we talked about you
20:35 what's the first part of drilling and building a well I mean you have
20:46 map out see what you're doing but when we actually start to build the
20:52 itself what were the elements of the construction? Oh the the like you're
21:04 about like the casing and everything. . So what's the what's the what's
21:11 top casing? What are they usually of still? Yeah So you've got
21:18 case where some of these wells are years old. They weren't even mapped
21:28 these guys were trying to rehabilitate this and then actually build an industrial facility
21:37 it but there are all these wells and all these Legacy wells and there's
21:45 years of agriculture and over growing and kinds of stuff here. So they
21:50 know where any of the wells So what would you do to solve
21:54 problem? There are all these wells are buried here someplace and you want
22:00 build a facility but you don't know any of these wells were. Hm
22:09 you just I mean, I'm sure some type of survey that you could
22:16 that would show you like where there's consider like not necessarily holds because inconsistencies
22:24 the land. Right, okay. that that's one idea. You could
22:31 some type of topographic detailed topographic survey try to find any anything that would
22:37 to previous? Well, but this has been bulldozed and roads built and
22:47 kinds of crap done on top of . So in fact right now it's
22:52 pretty flat. So there's there's a bayou running through it and there was
23:02 bit of marshy stuff and some casual on it and stuff. But it's
23:07 it's fairly flat. So we'll do we can with topography. But what
23:13 we going to do next? Could do like magnetic survey or something?
23:22 what would the magnetic survey do? would show you like I will show
23:30 the steel, like what's in the bingo? Beautiful. Well that's what
23:40 figured too. Mhm. So you go out there with a magnetometer and
23:52 to find the steel which is which okay. It's just that this is
23:56 pretty big piece of land and there's and marsh on it and stuff.
24:03 it's it's pretty hard to actually do point by point magnetometer survey. So
24:16 on to something. But what else we do? Because walking across this
24:20 all over the place and doing a every foot is not very easy.
24:25 , I know dr bird because my class was over magnetic and gravity.
24:29 did the airplane. The aero Yeah, and that's the idea.
24:35 so that's what we did. so this was one of the
24:44 one of the first ones that we aware of. We actually took a
24:48 and we hooked up the mega tom . We rented a mega thomas from
24:54 G and G. And uh program survey and flew the magnetometer using a
25:07 , which was very cool. So can see some pictures here. This
25:13 a colleague Mike Allison from rafter aerial was his drone. And then Michael
25:22 , former grad student, we rigged a magnetometer and then fluid. Uh
25:32 is one of the early encounters, program the the drone to fly a
25:39 survey, but it it didn't recognize there was a tree in a
25:44 So so we hit the tree. But anyway, we got out side
25:54 branches off the tree and stuff and the recovered the drone and reprogram the
26:00 path and everything. So here was , he was the Magnetics and you've
26:11 a little bit of this, that the area. So we did a
26:16 closely flying line through the whole area got these the total magnetic field as
26:25 from the magnetometer on the drone, that all up. And then boom
26:32 at it. So here are the highs and anomalies from the steel that's
26:39 the ground or whatever is there. now we've got all these anomalies and
26:47 gave this the company and they went and looked at excavated all these
26:54 So it uh, it actually worked pretty well. Now not everything we
27:01 was a wellhead. We found as as we know, we found all
27:04 wellheads, but we also found buried and all kinds of stuff. So
27:12 of these were different forms of but we located as far as we
27:16 , all the, all the legacy . So that's just another aspect of
27:22 borehole. Sometimes those boreholes leave our . Now, I was once called
27:32 to evaluate a proposal. Some guys proposed this new device there.
27:37 big cagey about the black box are but they showed an example, they
27:45 over an oil field and they said found 100% of the oil in this
27:54 . That was pretty good. And I, we looked at it a
28:00 more closely and we said, well do you know there's oil there and
28:04 said, well their oil wells So these are all oil wells And
28:10 found 100% of them. But what really found was 100% of the steel
28:17 . So guess what? You didn't the oil, You found the wells
28:25 everybody else had drilled for the So, oops, no funding for
28:30 one. We know how to find already. Okay, so another thing
28:39 we're working on a little bit is with these rock properties and I was
28:43 this toolkit and so I just was to mention this is another possible and
28:48 all the rock properties and one little kit. So you could give this
28:52 students anywhere and do online or or stuff. So that was the basic
28:58 of hands online rock because it's So if you register in any of
29:04 measurements, that's another place where we're support to continue to build this toolkit
29:11 , for use in labs or online in person. Okay, so I
29:19 to make sure that you had all terminology, which I think you do
29:26 as you know, homogeneous homo means from so many of these words are
29:32 and genius or genesis or Gino's is . So genotype or homogeneous means the
29:44 type. Of course the same every that homogeneous Aisa tropic isso is equal
29:52 is direction and then our way. it's a tropic means the same in
29:57 way or direction. An ice tropic means not so not the same in
30:04 directions and tropic. And we could these weird combinations. We could have
30:09 tropic homogeneous which is easy. Every has the same properties in all directions
30:14 we can have an ice. A homogeneous, every place has the same
30:21 properties. And you can see all various combinations that that we can
30:27 So just some just some language that want to be aware of than other
30:34 all these terms that we use when talk about elastic, it just means
30:39 it goes back to the same position that any strain that we impose on
30:47 after releasing the stress the strain will and we'll go back to the exact
30:52 position in the same state. An is not going to be elastic and
31:00 can see the words for plastic and , elastic. Breakage and duct
31:07 These all have terms mainly for the world which is now our conventional
31:15 Most of the production is unconventional. that in the sense makes it
31:22 So we use all those, all terms. Now I was gonna skip
31:30 a little bit because I think in of course you probably did a lot
31:36 this stuff. We've talked about bulk july and share ma july now I
31:40 know whether he put it in this . Um this was kind of a
31:44 good way. And some other some of the companies like to talk
31:52 lambda mu ro L M. R opposed to V. P V.
31:57 . And density. So in the physics world, you know, we're
32:06 to V. P. And Bs density. But if we look at
32:11 more basic rock physical parameters, then really density. New, the sheer
32:20 sheer modulates and lambda. And so can just we showed those various equations
32:27 but we could change velocities into lambda Rose and some companies and some people
32:39 to talk about rock properties in M. R. Terms. So
32:44 so you're aware of those did john this parameter ization at all? Or
32:51 not his favorite? I think we a little bit of both. I
33:01 know, I feel like that was so long ago. I don't remember
33:03 I think we did a little bit both. Um It's it's not really
33:12 . It's really just a different Some people argue that this is a
33:15 way to classify rocks rather than P. V. S. And
33:20 new row is just the rigidity times density. Lambda rho is, in
33:25 sense the compressibility times the density and we plot in this way sometimes the
33:33 properties separate the rock type better. when we're when we're cross plotting
33:43 we've got one rock and we've got different properties of the rock. So
33:47 cross plot the two different properties. hopefully something about the rock separates.
33:52 wanted to separate because what I want know is say that this is a
33:58 rock in orange. But I want make seismic measurements that pinpoint the clean
34:06 . So in other words, if know it's got a lambda rho of
34:10 and muro of six, then that a clean sense of if I make
34:23 on the material and say lambda rho 20 and mu is still six,
34:33 that's likely pointing toward it being a . So once again we're trying to
34:40 these elastic properties that indicate what kind rock it is. And in this
34:46 for these rocks, these sandstone and , this is a classic sequence.
34:53 a there's a nice separation between our rocks which are clean sands and the
35:01 materials again from the surface, I measure gamma rays from the from
35:11 They die too fast. So logging can get them but from the
35:16 I can't get them so that in gamma rays are play indicator. So
35:21 the surface I can't get that. if I can do seismic and process
35:25 seismic and the lamb in the row cross plot the rock properties that I
35:30 identify from the surface, the rock . So that's where our logs and
35:36 and everything comes back in. So learned this now. We talked about
35:44 before too. That that ratio is ratio of the transverse strain to the
35:57 strain. So if I, if squish the rock squish, the rock
36:04 gets fatter or the axle to the strain. Uh most, most
36:14 if I squish it this way, expands this way. Almost all
36:20 There are a couple of exceptions. some weird materials when I squish them
36:26 way, they squish this way And you might have seen those at
36:33 fairs and sometimes they're kind of a like sphere. And so when you
36:40 the sphere, the whole thing Or there's some other triangular girder,
36:46 things where you squish it this way it actually collapses this way. So
36:51 are some weird materials or weird structures you can build that are negative plaster
36:57 racial materials. But no, no work that way. And so this
37:11 a good little calculation you can I don't know whether you did this
37:15 in reservoir GFS is whether you did calculation, but we can calculate the
37:21 ratio of water. Water is largely compressible. So we just assume that
37:30 squeeze the cylinder of water, it's compressible. So if you change the
37:38 or the height length, then it's to increase the radius. So assuming
37:44 the volume is stays the same. can calculate the apostles ratio of
37:53 And as you see here we take the one cylinder pi R, squared
38:00 . And then the smaller cylinder, changed by delta R. And it's
38:06 by delta H. So it's gotten in our smaller than H. And
38:11 equate those two together. And you out that radio strain over the actual
38:16 is one. So the plastic ratio water is .5 and that is for
38:24 fluid. And so anytime we get racial rocks that are increasing, we
38:32 that the rock is looking more and like a fluid or more clay lake
38:36 plastic like or flow. So a stand stone which is very rigid and
38:48 non fluid like classic stansel. We'll apostles ratio of something like a quarter
38:56 . That's very little and then something very, very claylike or or malleable
39:03 like will be apostles ratio behalf. between a quarter and a half,
39:07 sort of the range of rocks. the other thing is you might hear
39:14 called poisons. So that's more of texas pronunciation the french, that's,
39:21 pronounced it slightly differently but we are texas but it's probably better to call
39:27 plus song. Okay, we talked little bit about this before that there
39:33 different types of estimators and averages that used here is just to remind you
39:37 exactly what you mean by avoid or Royce, an arithmetic versus a harmonic
39:44 . It's pretty simple. It's just rice or the harmonic is just one
39:49 the value is the sum of the one over all the values. And
39:53 to get back we just take the . So simple density, the in
40:04 sense, the density of the rock the density of the avoid in its
40:10 plus the matrix. And we take weighted value. So that's uh an
40:18 mean and this is really avoid average the fluid and the solid. So
40:26 straightforward. The wily velocity is really arithmetic slowness or a harmonic velocity.
40:38 you say that one over the velocity the weighting of the velocity of the
40:43 and the waiting the velocity, the , that's one over velocity. So
40:46 get the actual velocity. We have do the reciprocal after this little
40:55 So those are just different ways that can try to get estimators. And
41:06 as you probably did in rock physics back, we imagine that the once
41:12 that we've got the skeleton or the of the rock plus the the pores
41:18 the fluids, filling them, put together and depending on how you look
41:22 the rock, this is sort of we're going to get the values to
41:29 into gasping and gasping is the next . So we've got to get the
41:32 rock and matrix and then everything to with the fluid and then add those
41:37 and that gives the the value for saturated rock. Okay, so that's
41:51 a quick reminder about some of some of the rock physics. I'm
42:02 , we're gonna continue on with long so now we're gonna start to look
42:24 some well logs and go through But before we get there we happened
42:31 be in in Colombia and uh down some of the mines. But you
42:40 remember there was that Chilean mining disaster where the miners got trapped inside the
42:49 the mine. So we just look the resources what people are mining for
42:56 this is was in chile. But course there's all kinds of metals that
43:02 mine in in throughout south America but chilly. You know, copper,
43:10 , silver, all kinds of That's mind and chili. So that
43:17 part of it. And the the occurred in one of their minds that
43:20 in poll and you can see that was this copper gold mine and they
43:34 mine was quite deep and there were shafts and roadways to get down into
43:42 mine and you can see that it 700 m below the surface. So
43:49 2400 ft so pretty deep And there a collapse and there were the 33
43:59 who were trapped inside there and you see that they were trapped for over
44:03 months inside. I don't know whether seen the movie, did you happen
44:08 see there was a movie made about ? I haven't seen the movie but
44:12 remember seeing like the trailer or but haven't watched it completely. It's worth
44:19 put on the list. It's it's an interesting movie. It's pretty
44:23 So I'd recommend it. You know think it's called there's there's an english
44:34 . So how does it with respect well unplugging and our wells what they
44:40 was they drilled a hole into the . You might remember this, they
44:46 drilled down to it and they this quite a logging tool so they drill
44:55 to it uh some seven or 800 and built this rescue tool. So
45:07 they got this rescue tool and a diameter hole drilled it, lowered this
45:13 down and then one person could get the tool and then they hauled that
45:20 to the surface. So that's that's pretty interesting, pretty scary. But
45:28 so where it comes in in the once the hole is drilled of course
45:32 want to make sure that the hole in good shape. And so we're
45:36 to lower a camera down into the that has a visual capability. It's
45:46 good thing that this was up in mountains and there wasn't fluid that would
45:50 really tricky. So the wells drilled then you're gonna lower a video camera
45:56 has round lights on it. And rotating camera so you can see everything
46:02 a downward look as you can see or a rotating look. So a
46:07 logging tool and then the guys were put into this rescue chamber and brought
46:20 . Now it turns out the that in chile but the movie was actually
46:27 in the salt mine in Colombia. the sat for the movie was in
46:33 and we were down in the salt , we went to the salt mine
46:36 it was filmed and you can see there was the chambers were built in
46:43 Colombian salt mine and this is where the filming was done. So that
46:46 kind of fun and they had the set still there. And so you
46:50 hang out and see where the movie filmed. But part and drilling important
46:57 of the drilled well and then a tool that was used to get everybody
47:02 of it and you can go down to the site if you happen to
47:05 in Columbia for some reason uh you go down to the site, this
47:11 us just looking around the site. So when we um when we think
47:25 logging um where does where does this fit? And here's just a schematic
47:31 again from matt hall um where he shown a lot of the measurements that
47:37 do in geophysics and geology and what cover and what this means is when
47:43 make this measurement, what kind of do they have? And the formal
47:50 of resolution is that if I've got layer, I can see the top
47:55 it with my measurement and the And there was two um aspects of
48:02 measurement I'm making are separated so that can pick a top and I can
48:07 a bottom. So that's what resolution . Resolution means that My area or
48:16 of resolution is identified by two distinct . I can pick a top,
48:23 can pick a bottom, I can sides. So there's something that defines
48:30 area inside the area, it's kind uniform. I can't see anything really
48:35 . There's no boundary but resolution is I can pick a distinct to indicators
48:43 top and a bottom. So that's resolution means. And uh you
48:49 when seismic, a seismic wiggle, got two bumps. That's kind of
48:53 resolution of seismic is two bumps that separate, able I can pick one
48:58 of the bump and I can pick distinctive other bump or part of the
49:03 and vertical resolution. Seismic is somewhere a few meters at best. You
49:13 were talking about gravity and Magnetics. resolution is typically very broad for
49:19 Magnetics and in fact it's typically not . So resolution itself is a bit
49:27 . Now that's with our well logs typically go down to a few
49:32 So with the well log your excursions are on the order of a few
49:37 or 6" or something like that. , the other question is how far
49:44 do they cover? In fact, how far can I see? What's
49:51 in a sense, the depth of or the distance of propagation? And
49:56 seismic of course we can see almost logs. Typically we only see around
50:05 meter or so. Of course the geologic stuff. The thin sections are
50:13 high resolution, very low spatial coverage then gravity meg you're really penetrating and
50:21 maybe hundreds or thousands of meters of . Okay, so then we get
50:38 well, logs and you've seen some these before. But if you want
50:42 get more into logging, there are lot of really good texts. The
50:46 text that we used before is of uh Krakowski and ask with. But
50:53 there are other more specialized ones that more and more complicated geologic interpretation of
50:58 logs is intermediate advanced And then well for a scientist is pretty advanced.
51:06 some other more specific things just for logging for water wells as as well
51:10 well wells, but let's let's take little 10 minute break again, Stephanie
51:18 you type well, but 1 53 now. So just come back shortly
51:23 the hour, shortly after two. then we'll continue on with well
51:27 Okay, okay. See you in little bit. Let's go.
51:44 so we've shown this before that this how we were thinking about the rocks
51:49 terms of the matrix, the some clay mixed in and then various
51:55 of water. And so now we're to to continue to refine how we
52:02 with that. But before, before continue on with rocks, we should
52:10 a little bit about soils, we're drilling through the soil so we can
52:17 a little bit about soils too. if we if we look at the
52:22 , there's often sand and then of smaller particles clay and then silks
52:30 So we've got all this material with organics mixed in. But this is
52:35 the definition of how we classify, were familiar with rocks, but soils
52:39 this other whole world that we're going drill through and log. And you
52:47 see here just a couple of examples , of the soil, there's often
52:54 high porosity because some of these, is not consolidated material. So we're
52:59 out of suspension. So it can say 50% porosity in that porosity
53:05 there could be air as well as , probably fresh water or some kind
53:11 water and with organic matter and then other minerals. So that's our view
53:17 the soils again unconsolidated, big often saturated parsley with air and parsley
53:24 with water. And then if we're to define what the soil is would
53:31 on the particle size and often the and we're going from silt to loans
53:37 sands, two plays. And just you don't remember those turn ary diagrams
53:46 this is how we interpret. So if we're going back and trying to
53:50 , well I've got say um 50% and 30% clay, what kind of
54:02 is that? And uh you I'm gonna turn this off somehow.
54:11 . Just heard me say something like must have sounded like google. So
54:14 turned on, it turned on one my home systems. Be right
55:05 That's funny. But always a little when you say something that sounds like
55:10 E Y G 00 G L E Hey I'm here. Excuse me.
55:20 we're looking at soils and uh just how to do uh territory diagrams.
55:28 we took this one example. So got three properties. So we imagine
55:32 any material, soil or rock is up of three components. And if
55:37 give you two of the components in plot, how do we, how
55:42 we understand and decipher these plots? you can see take this example,
55:47 60% of a 20% of the then of, see the way the plots
55:53 , is that we take a And that component is, we just dropped
55:59 from that and here's the A But we imagine that any line perpendicular
56:07 A. That's the percentage. So it's an a component say a sand
56:14 here and I've got shale and dolomite example, and say it's a it's
56:19 sand that I dropped down. There's 60% sand, which is all
56:25 Now, if it's where do I if it's 20% b. Well,
56:31 gonna drop down perpendicular to B. all this line is 20% B.
56:38 100% B. Here's 20% B. then what does that give me in
56:47 . So I dropped down perpendicular from . And you can see that's 20%
56:53 . So that's when we're presented with turn ary diagram. That's how we
57:01 the turn ary diagram. So likewise here, see I had 30%
57:11 so I would drop down to hear 30% clay right there and then maybe
57:27 Uh 50% silt. So I'm down 30% clay here and that 50%
57:34 I'm gonna drop down to here. it was that 30% clay. And
57:46 50% still. And so that gives 20% sent. So once again to
58:04 these, we say what is And then you just drop straight down
58:09 a that's your percentage and whatever scale plotted on and then find the component
58:16 B. We will be given that drop down perpendicular and then that automatically
58:24 a standard section for a seat. that's how you read turning diagrams.
58:33 , well let's move on now to logging. And we're gonna spend a
58:39 amount of time logging because that's um vsp those are the two main geophysical
58:47 of styles that we use. So that's most of what we're gonna
58:51 But a log just by definition is any record of things in some kind
59:00 order slammed into the ground in south last night. You can hear and
59:13 . I'm gonna have I think I'm turn my phone off. So a
59:25 is this record for us? It's systematic record in depth. We could
59:31 course have a log of your Which would be a systematic record in
59:36 . But so we're doing this systematic in depth and there's a whole pile
59:43 reasons why we record logs because that's a tale of the rock. But
59:49 also use them for correlations for indicators what the rock is something we want
59:55 get from it. And then ultimately we're going to develop and produce and
60:00 how we're going to monitor what's changing what's going to make us a picture
60:05 what's happening so we can manage the , okay? And that that goes
60:11 not just hydrocarbons that goes for water goes for contaminants. If we were
60:17 a cleanup site, we might want monitor the fluids for X number of
60:22 to make sure that the site is as we expected. Likewise with with
60:29 . Um we're gonna log and see what order is that might be
60:34 it might be iron ore, it be um cobalt, it might be
60:39 modern critical mineral, a rare all these kind of things. So
60:44 gonna log for everything. Just the correlations themselves. We can often
60:53 going to have some wells drilled already then we're just going to look for
60:57 character or rock type or something across wells and then create some kind of
61:03 idea for what's happening in the subsurface the in the oil industry, the
61:10 legacy logs that we've had our resistive , maybe S. P. And
61:15 ray, Those were our classic the gamma ray as we're going to
61:20 is our the first log we like look at because it's really simple and
61:24 got high resolution and it tells us lot about character. But we can
61:30 that just in an oil field development . But you can also look across
61:34 of kilometers and say going into the of Mexico across Louisiana. You can
61:39 from north Louisiana right into the gulf very, very broadly see the deposition
61:47 from north into the gulf of Mexico sedimentary section across many tens of
61:55 And so it's kind of cool Look at just the well logs put
61:59 and correlated over say two or 300 . You can really see what's happening
62:06 the gulf of Mexico as the sediments into that basin that was raining sediments
62:12 the crate on the center part of US into the basin of the gulf
62:17 Mexico and just leaving all those, beautiful deposition. So once again,
62:30 we want from the logs, this sort of what we want from a
62:33 log. So here's just an example two wells. These are processed
62:41 So after we've made all the we're going to infer the rock
62:48 And you can see here there's a type in the legend with courts,
62:53 of our basic minerals and then going depth in the long, we've got
63:00 percentage of each of those minerals and we've got the porosity and then we've
63:05 what's in the ferocity. So ultimately is the, the kind of final
63:11 we want from all the well the well logs themselves are not going
63:15 give this directly. We have to the big inverse problem to get this
63:20 of the logs. But here's where going, I want a record of
63:25 in depth ferocity in depth and then fill. So that's everything the most
63:35 what we're gonna get to need. that's what we're moving to work
63:41 just in practical terms uh on the side you have, you haven't been
63:45 to a well yet, have you ? No, I haven't.
63:52 well that's something to look forward You'll get out there one of these
63:58 . But on the well itself we about the drilling floor. This in
64:06 systems is where the drill string is . Um the old traditional drilling rigs
64:16 now may be turning at the top the top drive for the, the
64:23 at the top. So once here's our floor and there's a big
64:33 here that's turning this kelly and then is the kelly that's being turned and
64:39 is going up and down. That's we can add our drill pipe on
64:42 being turned. This is a conventional . It could be turned by by
64:48 top drive motor too. But for purposes, this is where all well
64:55 are measured from the floor of the rig or what's this turning element,
65:03 is the kelly. And the kelly is the uh the mechanism by which
65:15 drill string turns the rotary drill So the kelly bushing is just this
65:22 right here and this is the level KB. And that's where all
65:28 logs originally measured from, from So we've just got a note on
65:33 well log, one of the first is that where's ground level, where
65:37 level. So there are other data we use. And as we
65:43 this is just a note to remember . There are lots of things that
65:46 called KB. So reminds us when , We use acronyms and short firms
65:55 everything all the time, which is for our audience. But we have
65:59 remember to be sensitive or aware of our audience knows. So if I
66:06 KB at a basketball crowd, then course they're going to be thinking of
66:10 Bryant or something like that. So K. B. And then with
66:23 basic logging tool, as you a wire line log, which was
66:27 standard way we, the standard we've got a recording truck. We've
66:31 the wire line and then we've got wire line going into the well,
66:34 drill string is out of the well and we've drilled the hole and we're
66:39 doing open hole logging. So there's casing in the interval. So we're
66:47 measuring the raw formation. And once , so here's a land drilling
66:57 you can see that the kelly bushing the floor is maybe 10 ft or
67:02 off ground level. So we have apply that if we're comparing the
67:07 the seismic data might be some other . So we just have to figure
67:12 out. So here we've got the tool and the guy on the rig
67:19 it, this is zero, the is at K. B. And
67:23 zero your instruments. And here's this picture, one of the very first
67:29 that I was ever honest student and was in Alabama and you can see
67:37 it was a while ago. Look the trucks Uh proto F150s or
67:44 Slumbers a truck is almost the very . That's virtually the very same track
67:48 they've got now. But this particular was in Alabama in an area on
67:57 on the gulf shore's in Alabama and beautiful thing was that it was,
68:03 was near the water but there's gorgeous there. I don't know they've ever
68:08 around there but Alabama isn't that well for its beaches but they're actually
68:14 I've actually always wanted to go. heard they're beautiful but I've never
68:19 Yeah it's really worth a trip It's not that far away and it's
68:24 that expensive because most people don't really about it. You know florida has
68:29 all the cachet and everything but this area around Alabama the beaches are really
68:38 . Now we didn't get to spend time there. But ah we had
68:43 shirts made and the beautiful part is it's called the Redneck Riviera. And
68:52 we had t shirts made of the Riviera and fortunately they spelt Riviera Ron
69:01 that was good because no good redneck know how to spell Riviera Anyway so
69:08 was a nice authentic t shirt, I think I told you this is
69:14 of the ones that made me really . We were testing some tools and
69:17 had a huge weight drop called the or it was a seismic source that
69:22 an enormous wave that hit sideways to a share wave. And big guys
69:27 New England students, especially the, red guys were kind of distrustful of
69:33 at first. And so we were this experiment. They had, it
69:38 kind of muddy, They had this weight drop. I was looking there
69:43 see position myself perpendicular. So when weight dropped, I wanted to see
69:47 it hit twice to see what the waveform was. All the guys in
69:51 rig were watching about these wacko New doing experiments. So the weight drop
69:57 down and hit the mud and the sprayed out and completely soaked me with
70:02 and not proved to all the guys the rig that these grad students from
70:06 England were idiots. And so we all got to know each other
70:12 and better. But and incidentally, weight only hit once. So I
70:17 happy. So where you going? , at the time, of course
70:23 the rigs are not allowed to drink or anything, but people chew tobacco
70:33 my father's business was a wholesale So I had grown up around tobacco
70:38 all that stuff, but I had never chewed tobacco, but if you're
70:42 be on that rig, you pretty had to chew tobacco. So so
70:48 these guys were tobacco chewers. You have seen this, this kind of
70:52 , but have you seen what people seriously to tobacco, do you have
70:57 can? They spit the tobacco in can or into this platoon or
71:02 So these guys walked out of the . So I started chewing tobacco and
71:08 I didn't know that you weren't supposed swallow a little bit of it.
71:11 I did and it makes you so . So that was the first and
71:18 time I ever chewed tobacco. But the drilling engineer part of the
71:27 Well this this is when you're a stuff. It turned out that the
71:33 drilling engineer, the head guy his daughter was Miss Louisiana. So
71:37 course all of us were interested in to know him better. Uh but
71:44 any case the joys of life was student. So here's, here's one
71:49 the rig sites you can see. now in this case we actually did
71:53 gas at shallow gas. It was very exciting time because they had to
72:00 the drill string out of the well down heavier mud to control it.
72:05 the well didn't blow out. So was a very exciting well, but
72:14 here all the logs and we've talked these before. These are all the
72:17 logs that we're looking for and that all going to analyze again to refresh
72:22 memory and get you some more So you can see one of the
72:31 logs that we need is just the log that just tells us the size
72:35 the shape of the borehole. And use that for lots of purposes that
72:39 talk about. And then the sp , which is just measuring the voltage
72:49 the surface and the borehole. But mainly shows us salinity differences between the
72:56 mud in the well and the formation . So because there's usually a salinity
73:07 between the fresh water mud and the and the formation, it means that
73:12 there's going to be an ionic which is going to try to equal
73:16 great the ion concentration in the drilling , which is low and the I
73:24 the brightness saltiness of the formation, is high. So to a
73:29 a great, the bride is going try to, the ions are gonna
73:34 to homogenize to become equal and that's to be current flow. And we're
73:39 measure that because that's related to So the sp log is very
73:44 but what's driving it is a little complicated and useful. And then gamma
73:50 all materials, as we mentioned, a little little bit, most materials
73:56 a little bit of clay in them . And many of the clays have
74:02 or something radioactive them. So there's little bit of radio activity in most
74:08 up to a lot of radio activity shales. So we can measure the
74:18 radio activity of the sediments in a tool. And that gives us a
74:24 of correlation between rock types in between . The sonic time just measures very
74:33 the the transit time of of a disturbance. An elastic wave propagating along
74:43 borehole wall, just how long it to go from a source to
74:47 And that gives us the velocity of rock, which is an indicator of
74:53 type like we've shown before and an of ferocity. Then the resistive.
75:04 E is in a sense the money because the resistive Itty measures the electrical
75:14 . And just to go back is water electrically conductive? What do you
75:28 ? Yes, not too conductive. nothing really ionic. It turns out
75:35 fresh water. Now you're exactly right briny water brian has all kinds of
75:45 . We've got the sodium and chlorides maybe fluoride and calcium. All kinds
75:50 stuff. That in briny water we've lots of ions and electrons available.
76:00 brines are extremely conductive, electricity. about organic matter, oil and gas
76:17 that conductive? Electrically conductive. Um no not at all. There's nothing
76:31 , there's nothing ionic really in uh four, there's nothing ionic there.
76:42 hydrocarbons are very resistant. They are non conductive. So the way the
76:54 ITty log works, it's measuring the resistive ITty of the rock is most
77:01 itself. Like the matrix sandstone or ? Or is is a sandstone?
77:11 conductive. Mm. No, no . There's there's nothing that is
77:22 Again there's nothing that is ionic. the rock itself is typically very non
77:32 also. So hydrocarbons are non Rock is non conductive. So if
77:38 look at a hydrocarbon, saturated what do you expect it to be
77:43 or conductive? Hydrocarbon, saturated settlement . Yeah, very resistant because the
77:58 is resistive and the poor fluid is . So there's just nothing that's conducting
78:07 . Simple terms. If I put in the rock which is normal,
78:13 happens to the total rocks conductivity? , a little bit of brine allows
78:25 to flow. And so when I've brian saturated rocks that are permeable,
78:33 they are very conductive. So they a low resistive. Itty, high
78:38 , low resistance conductivity is one over . Itty, reciprocal. So the
78:46 . Itty logs are a strong indicator your fluids. So if we have
78:57 resistive ITty, it's usually um permissible brian or brian situated. High
79:06 Itty means that typically we've either got or there is no permeability that even
79:18 I had brine, it's so low . It can't flow. So there's
79:24 we'll look at that similar. When uh start thinking about relativity and logs
79:32 detail. Then the other things that want are the density and the
79:38 We want to know the density of rock because that's a strong rock
79:41 That's a strong indicator. If I the density of the rock, Say
79:46 Dead Sea, the rock is 2.1 per CC. Do you remember what
79:54 of rock that would likely be? ? Is that a climbs?
80:08 I don't think it was like Yeah. And then I don't shell
80:21 , I don't remember. Well, actually could be those depending on the
80:27 . But but if it's a competent , it's salt. So if we
80:31 a big, that's salt. The of quartz is 2.65 g per
80:41 And hydrates and lime stones are 2.72 eight they're dense. However, it
80:47 true. If I put 20 or porosity in that and fill it with
80:51 , then the velocity and the density going to be quite low, but
80:56 as a non porous material, 2.1 typically solid, for example. So
81:04 want to know the density and then want to know the porosity and this
81:09 back to what our ultimate job Our ultimate job is usually to define
81:14 layer and then define the ferocity and find the poor Phil and that gives
81:20 how much money is there. And what the job is in straight economic
81:29 . So we want to know the and then we want to know the
81:32 Phil. And then the photoelectric effect another nuclear law. Um Well it's
81:41 an atomic log. The uh and going to inject photons into the
81:47 see how they interact with the And we're gonna count them and then
81:51 what rock type it is directly from P. E. F. Photoelectric
81:56 log. So those are the standard , there's more sophisticated logs, there's
82:01 NMR nuclear magnetic resonance logs. They're accelerator logs. They're they're the borehole
82:09 logs. So there are other ones . But these are the main ones
82:12 we see all the time. Again there's just a ton of information
82:23 . But this is really what all logs are used for. And you
82:30 see that we make all these different measurements, every kind of possible physics
82:35 we can put in a tool we're use it because we can, so
82:42 the well logging world we use all in the surface geophysics world. It's
82:49 seismic. A little bit of a little bit of Magnetics but mainly
82:55 . But in the well logging world every kind of measurement. So you
83:01 see that because we want to know these things about the rocks and then
83:08 are different holes open, whole case between wells, all kinds of
83:13 So we're gonna use all different logs many as possible because then they'll nail
83:18 everything you want to know. So , as I mentioned, are our
83:28 logs and now we're going to start go through them. And again,
83:34 have all different depths of investigation all way from maybe six or 8 ft
83:40 the formation to maybe only an inch two into the formation. So different
83:45 penetrate more deeply. And then, mentioned, they, depending on the
83:54 of the measurement, they can measure thin layers or very thick layers.
83:59 so the some of the micro especially the relativity ones, can be
84:04 small, sonic log might be measuring like a foot ah density logs and
84:16 ray or somewhat even smaller. And some of the inductions which measures resistive
84:25 can actually be very deeply penetrating and of course in the resolution. But
84:31 gives you an idea, We're thinking the order of centimeters to meters in
84:34 logging world. So that's the that's size. Okay, so here's our
84:50 in the oil world. We've got find out what's the rock. And
84:54 there hydrocarbons there, if they're How much and then uh ultimately how
85:03 can we get out and how So let's let's just jump right into
85:20 lives themselves. So we're gonna walk way through, here's just a picture
85:25 the business end of a logging So we've got the wire line now
85:30 we've drilled the well it's cased at top probably for safety. Now we're
85:35 to lower tools into the well into open hole and make measurements of what
85:40 of rock is there. So you see the wire line, this is
85:46 to be deployed into the well. it's got a a set of logging
85:51 on the on the other end logging . And the wire line itself typically
86:00 seven conductors and it's seven wires inside protected cable. And those seven conductors
86:10 used for power and data power down backup. And their little um raps
86:27 the cable that are detected by this to say how much cable is going
86:34 the well. And this is where get um the total depth or length
86:43 the cable versus the true vertical We've got to have some deviation information
86:48 some geometric information to correct the total of the cable to the vertical.
86:59 there it is. Then just the numbers. When you start manipulating the
87:07 , we remember that there has to a format. And this is the
87:11 like your company does with standard we have to have standard formats.
87:16 that was one of the standards. main standard is L. A.
87:20 . Log askey. Standard. Just very basic way to exchange this log
87:26 and you can see that it starts just describing the well where it
87:30 who did it. Um And then curves that were measured the depth where
87:39 curve is measured the caliper here, calipers, spectral, gamma ray,
87:43 porosity, density, porosity and the . F. So and that's being
87:49 at every one half. But I just trying to see where it
88:03 oh yeah depth is in feet, feet and then calipers and inches and
88:09 the others are relative values. so that's just what you're gonna see
88:16 the header and if you have you with logs before, have you used
88:20 of the software or manipulate logs? No not yet. Okay. You
88:27 that would be that would be But here's the here's the format that
88:34 data would come in. And then the first tool again here's the
88:38 this is a four arm caliber and it can fully measure the major and
88:45 axes of the well. Many wells a little bit ellipse idle depending on
89:07 . So you can see that these actually go fold back in, the
89:15 is put to the bottom of the and then the well is logged
89:20 So when the tools at the bottom the well the arms are outwardly engaged
89:26 then logging is up. So that's the and then that just gives us
89:42 a major and a minor axis of , of the whole uh perfectly
89:49 they'll give the same reading. If hole is a bit elliptical, they'll
89:52 slightly different the the opposing arms, that's pretty basic measurement, but we
90:00 it for a lot of different Um So the number one is just
90:08 diameter of the well and the and shape. So one of the first
90:19 basic things is we're going to case well, then we're gonna put the
90:26 casing inside the well. So that us an inner Angeles. And then
90:33 outer part is the the formation. we've got to figure out how much
90:39 do I need to go between the and the formation. So the
90:46 that's one diameter, the outer diameter the casing and how much do I
90:52 to fill that? That annual, seems pretty obvious. But if you're
90:57 person involved with trying to truck all cement to the well site or you
91:03 delivering stuff offshore, you don't want screw that up the well might be
91:07 miles offshore. So you don't want be sure on how much cement you
91:14 out. On the other hand, don't want to take out too much
91:19 it's expensive to get it there. simple calculation from the caliper log lets
91:26 know if we base and cement the , how much, how much we
91:32 , there's there's lots of other stuff we can derive from the, from
91:37 simple measurement. If the well is out then we are flagged and that's
91:41 problem area. We might be flagged . It's uh also kind of rock
91:48 for this as a predisposition to break flag to fall in the well.
91:56 if the well is squished in one that tells us what the maximum horizontal
92:04 . So we can get all kinds stuff from the, from the caliper
92:14 . If we wanted a really detailed description, then we could go to
92:18 kind of more sophisticated log like this would give us a really, really
92:26 view of the well. So again we're reading the the caliper log and
92:37 caliper log is gonna be plotted on on the far side typically of the
92:43 log report. If the caliper gets then and the bit of the bit
92:51 that was just consistent. If it big, then that's gonna flag as
92:55 that's a problem area. Some of logs aren't going to work very
92:58 but it's also an indicator of what of rocket is this might be
93:03 It might be unconsolidated sand, it be a cold, it's friable.
93:09 that's a flag. Sometimes the caliper say the well diameter is less than
93:17 drill bit. Well at first, could that be the drill bit has
93:24 a hole that's a certain size. could you be measuring something that's smaller
93:29 that could be that the formation is or that it's swollen or that it's
93:36 permeable and it's accepting mud and that deposits. It's mud cake or it's
93:42 and creates a smaller hole. So actually look for this mud cake build
93:48 or this smaller part of the whole that can be an indicator of
93:59 So once again if our caliper log big and signals a washout and that
94:09 distort some of the well log measurements you can imagine now I've got a
94:13 hole and I'm trying to measure the in the middle but I'm really measuring
94:17 of the properties of the fluid not formation because I've gotta wash that
94:22 So as you can imagine if suppose got a radioactive formation but now it's
94:28 out. So my detector is farther . What do you think the gamma
94:33 is going to show? It's radioactive it shows. So it's would it
94:50 would it be like a low Yeah. Our detectors are farther away
94:57 the emitter and you wouldn't necessarily know at this stage but submitting gamma rays
95:03 gamma rays are absorbed any buy anything detector and the fluid is going to
95:09 the gamma rays. So if my is going down here? Typically the
95:14 here but then I've got to wash . So my emitters are farther
95:18 There's still some gamma rays that get but they're attenuated because they're farther
95:23 And sure enough you can see that gamma ray log is lower values.
95:30 does that mean that it's less No it just means that the hole
95:33 washed out of my detectors farther So we're going to always take a
95:37 look at the caliper to make sure the whole itself is in fairly good
95:43 and not washed out. So that's immediate purpose that we're always going to
95:58 at for the uh the caliper whenever looking at the well the well logs
96:03 that's again just to make sure that well logs are not being compromised by
96:09 borehole problem. So now another clear is that if if I've got a
96:18 drilled but I've got strong horizontal stress a maximum then it's just mechanically I'm
96:27 squish the well. So in areas of strong dominant maximum horizontal stress or
96:38 squishing in a certain direction, then expect the boreholes are gonna distort a
96:45 bit and get thinner in the direction the maximum squish. So when you
96:57 of think about the tectonics of the part of the US and Canada we
97:05 got a subduction zone on the west . So if you we're imagining which
97:16 you think would be the direction of squish in western north America, will
97:30 be um east west. Yeah. know it's it's a little bit complicated
97:40 of course you've got to transform situation California. But in these areas of
97:48 it's a compressive regime. And so that's exactly right. The the maximum
97:58 stress is somewhat perpendicular to the So if that's the maximum stress direction
98:11 we expect it to squish the rock that direction. So that's gonna be
98:16 thinnest part of the ellipse and the is gonna distended or be extended in
98:24 perpendicular direction. So again if I'm I'm squishing a hole this way it's
98:31 gonna become elongated, perpendicular, shortest going to be in the direction of
98:40 horizontal stress maximum. And and we that once you're in the center part
98:46 the continent it's it's a lot But there's actually kind of a line
98:51 goes along the rockies where the rockies typically under a little bit of compressive
98:57 . So that's that the good news that we can use that electricity just
99:05 define what the horizontal stresses. So do we care? Well all through
99:12 , west texas we're going to hydraulically the rock and if there's horizontal stress
99:22 there is the rock is going to in the direction that's easiest. So
99:31 I pressurize up the whole and I'm with a horizontal hole here then it's
99:40 can pick any direction to break. gonna pick the direction it's easiest to
99:49 . And as you can imagine that is going to be the direction that's
99:55 compressing it. So the break is to be in the direction of minimum
100:03 stress. So that's where the actual is. The fracture itself is going
100:17 go along the fracture itself is going go along the line of maximum
100:22 It's breaking apart in the direction of stress. That's just the easiest thing
100:27 do. But the direction of that is in the maximum stress. So
100:33 can see that and that's the way rock's gonna break. So for hydraulically
100:38 all the rocks gonna break in that . And so we need to know
100:43 so that we drill our wells perpendicular that direction. So we're gonna drill
100:51 horizontal well and it's gonna break perpendicular , everywhere down the well, that's
100:56 idea. And then we're going to the most volume with the broken
101:03 So that's the game. I have stimulate the reservoir. I have to
101:08 the rock. So I'm trying to as much of the rock as possible
101:11 cheaply as possible. So we need know what's the direction of maximum stress
101:25 the fracture is actually going to go that direction. The reason for that
101:34 the game. It's opening up against minimum the least amount of stress.
101:49 , so now our next simple tools just discussed was was the S.
101:54 . Or the spontaneous potential. And an easy log, we just put
102:02 electrode into the surface, then there's wire down to the tip of the
102:05 and we're measuring the voltage between those . But mainly that's just the voltage
102:12 the fluid and the formation. So different ionic uh concentrations that will the
102:24 and the formation. The fluids and well are going to try to equal
102:26 great and that aquila gration is ions and when ions are moving that's
102:34 And if current is moving that is or the result of a potential or
102:41 . So we're gonna pick up that which is an indicator of fluid
102:46 which is an indicator of bionic which is an indicator of permeability.
102:51 when I get an sp kick, means that there's movement going on
102:54 that means that there's permeability. So our permeability log. Okay, so
103:11 again, because the fluid in the say it's typically on land, a
103:18 resist of mud in the formation. did we say is usually in the
103:25 in terms of fluids brian brian is conductive. Yes, yeah. So
103:39 formation typically has a conductive brine in and the drilling mud on land is
103:48 a resist of fresh water based So there's a salinity difference. So
103:56 like if you poured some fresh water a salty drink, it's gonna
104:03 Likewise the brine and the mud are to try to mix and that's going
104:08 cause current flow. And when there's current flow we're gonna pick it up
104:12 that's RSP or our current flow, voltage measurement. So when we um
104:59 logging with this you can see what responses are that when there is current
105:09 or permeability we get a kick and often at the boundary of shale
105:15 The shale surface is a little bit . So the boundary is is also
105:22 voltage generator in a sense. So are not really permeable. So we're
105:29 to get no response in the shale we're going to get a good response
105:33 the sand. So it's sort of shale indicator too because the shells are
105:41 permissible. So it's got no So the response is flat. We're
105:46 in a in a more shale Okay, so now let's look at
105:55 natural gamma and that will complete our swipe of these logs. So the
106:02 gamma once again is is just measuring natural radio activity and radio activity in
106:09 earth is mainly because of cut U. T. H. So
106:16 again that's the pneumonic device to remember radioactive. Just remember radio activity hurts
106:23 . So it's like cutting you. that's K. U th potassium uranium
106:28 thorium those are big radioactive Adams they send out gamma rays which are
106:42 energetic and they're very low dose but don't want to be in the way
106:49 a lot of gamma radiation, I want to sleep on top of
107:04 So again the potassium is in a of the clay minerals. So that's
107:10 the gamma ray log is often, just measures radio activity from anything.
107:16 a lot of that radio activity is from potassium which is really attached generally
107:21 clays. However, uh it sometimes be in granite and granite washes.
107:30 typically there might be radioactive sands, that's unusual and there might be radioactive
107:37 . That's also unusual. But I know whether I told you the story
107:42 we were first doing our field camps in Montana, I drilled a couple
107:48 wells up there, just shallow wells for us to log for a student
107:56 and because I wanted to know what rocks were. So we brought up
107:59 drilling rig and I helped the guy we uh as I was helping him
108:05 the drill pipe and everything, he that he usually brings somebody to help
108:09 . He has a helper. I being his helper with all the drill
108:13 and I said, well where is ? And he said, well I
108:16 a piece of drill pipe on it broke his legs. Number one,
108:23 number two, do I want to on this thing, Do I want
108:27 help you? Do I really want help you. So anyway, we
108:32 the well drilled and we called it well logger to log the wells and
108:37 guy came up and the guy was and so he logged the wells and
108:44 Gamma ray showed really high readings and was a little bit irritated because number
108:50 I was paying him and he was and he logged wells. So the
108:55 ray was really high and I you know, there's something wrong
108:59 I know we were in carbonates and know, carbonates are generally clean.
109:07 I said, I really want you log this well again, which he
109:15 and it came back high again and wasn't drunk the second time he logged
109:19 so that this is weird, but , so we paid him and then
109:24 was out hiking and it turned out , in one of the areas and
109:29 bumped into one of the guides, of the geologic survey guides. So
109:34 was talking to him and he oh, I'm a geologist. I
109:36 , you know what, this is of weird, but maybe you'll know
109:40 drilled and logged as well and it getting really, really high radio
109:44 but we're in carbonate so that was up. And I said the logger
109:47 drunk first time, but not second and he said, oh yeah,
109:53 said they're uranium mines around here, is Montana, the uranium is concentrated
109:59 the carbonates, there you go. um Montana is full of good things
110:11 interesting surprises. So here you had which are normally very clean, very
110:17 radioactive. But every once in a you had ground water that was flowing
110:21 that was had uranium in it, gets attached to the carbonates. And
110:26 good uranium mines in carbonates. So the gamma ray was kind of off
110:36 in this area. This is not confuse the issue is just to say
110:43 generally these rules, we go by general rules but there are exceptions to
110:49 rules all the time, which is there is the S P.
110:53 L. A. The society of physicists and well log analysts who get
110:58 big bucks because they know the Okay, so we're logging through the
111:10 and again the gamma rays are One of our simplest and most beloved
111:15 because it's it's pretty easy and it's . So the way it works is
111:23 a sodium iodide detector and when a ray hits the sodium iodide crystal it
111:31 off an electron and then that crystal in a voltage separator that accelerates the
111:38 and it gives a click when it the detector. So that's a Geiger
111:43 . So the the gamma ray logging is really just a Geiger counter.
111:50 on the surface it's strictly counting gamma hits in a classic environment, we
112:00 attached that gamma ray hit two radio and a clay material which is
112:06 So generally speaking the gamma ray log a correlation log but it's a it's
112:11 clay or shale indicator or in very cases it's a uranium thorium indicator.
112:19 if we get more sophisticated we can filters on the gamma ray and it's
112:24 a spectral gamma ray and it will out the energies of the different gamma
112:29 and give us three tracks a potassium and thorium track to say which element
112:39 the gamma ray because they have different and so we can filter for
112:43 The simplest natural gamma just lumps them together. More sophisticated spectra, gamma
112:50 gr spectral gamma rays separate those and we get a track for each
113:02 Great. Okay so the the gamma um is a nice easy log and
113:20 counts the hits. But of course the tools again. Thinking more about
113:25 tools and operations. Most the tools different sensitivities. So therefore we needed
113:32 , we needed the calibration, we to say your tool gives me 500
113:37 . This other guy's tool gave me hits what's going on and the detectors
113:42 different. So we want to say about the rocks and so we're going
113:47 have to standardize the tools so that's one and then we're gonna get an
113:55 . So to standardize the tools was at U. Of H. So
114:01 the well logging world, University of was very famous because it built way
114:07 in the fifties it built the calibration for every well log on earth.
114:14 that was done at U. Of . So it was called the
114:17 P. I. Log calibration And what they did was they
114:24 they drilled a big hole And this on campus, it's only about two
114:28 300 yards from our building. Uh a big hole put in non radioactive
114:36 and then dope cement with uranium potassium thorium had eight ft of that and
114:44 put on another layer of non So we've got this radioactive interval of
114:52 radio activity. So everybody would bring logging tool And the logging tool would
115:00 naturally output their counts per second. then that was calibrated to a standard
115:06 and the standard number was 200. whatever your gamma ray tool output,
115:15 had a scaling factor to make that equal to 200. And that was
115:20 a 200 api unit. And the of radio activity was built to be
115:28 to a mid continent radioactive shale. 200 api units is a strongly radioactive
115:39 like the Pierre Shale. So that's . And all the tools were
115:47 Then of course not everybody could find tool to Houston to be calibrated.
115:51 so People develop standards like yours that radioactive standards and you would have a
115:59 piece of radio activity that you brought to your tool and then you would
116:02 the tool to read 200 with that standard. But uh even when I
116:11 came here 14 years ago there were companies were bringing their tools to the
116:15 . P. I. Pits on and calibrating them. So we logged
116:20 many times. Here's some former students Ruiz, working for E.
116:27 G. And Jingjing Zhang, now professor in china and some other
116:33 Here's the pit itself and then you log through that and make a measurement
116:39 calibrate your tool. And so what mythology as you can see when we
116:48 it through the shale. This is a very strong shale in this particular
116:54 , sand has almost no radio limestone, coal, salt.
117:00 And then of course uh once again shales are hydrated activity. So let's
117:17 go back and just look at some and analyze them. But we're just
117:24 just about an hour or so So why don't we take a quick
117:27 again and then we'll come back and this log. So let's take seven
117:34 8 minutes or so and Come back around just before 320 and then we'll
117:40 on. Alright, see you Okay great. Um We're back and
117:49 bad. Um So um how you ? Stephanie. You're doing okay.
118:00 . I'm doing good arrival and Yeah just pushing through. Yeah.
118:07 have a quick look at this uh log and start to step our way
118:13 . We haven't talked about all this but when we look at the gamma
118:18 , so the we've got the log 0 to 1 25. And then
118:24 course sometimes as we said it's gonna greater than that but we've only got
118:28 piece of graph paper. So what traditionally do is wrap around if the
118:35 gets beyond this, then you just plotting on the other side. So
118:40 see that sometimes um the resistance the is provided in logarithmic values because it
118:48 varies by so much that if we had a linear scale often you wouldn't
118:54 very much on it. So it's . But let's look at the gamma
118:59 . So we've got 01 25 in P. I. Units. And
119:05 typically we're thinking anything Around 100 and is going to be a shale zero
119:16 going to be a very clean Although we generally don't see any kind
119:20 rock that is absolutely zero clay in because of all the clay that's
119:27 So when you look down this gamma log we're going down down down,
119:31 down and then you can see that drops quite a bit and we've got
119:35 layer. So how would you describe layer? Uh It would be a
119:52 . Yeah. So first stepping through , it's just obvious, it's low
119:56 . Itty at least on low low ray. So low radio activity.
120:00 number one, we're just gonna say radio activity. Now it's annotated
120:05 but this is a classic section. turns out so we're only dealing with
120:10 and shells were going to say, know this is a Shelly Shelly
120:15 Then we go into a low radio which we interpret the sand and then
120:20 come out of it. So our is obviously going to be to pick
120:24 top of that sand and again this just one dimensional. We're just going
120:27 it. So we're hitting that sand and we can pick the top pretty
120:32 and the base of sand pretty Now the other log here is the
120:51 log. And we said when the log gives a kick, what did
120:57 mean again or when it when it a departure or when it has ah
121:08 isn't that the mixing of the So that's when the brine is mixed
121:11 water. Okay. So and we that that solidity mixing was an indicator
121:17 what it was an indicator of? . Hold on. If the sure
121:40 we can if if there's if there's allowed that it has to be permissible
121:47 we see this kick on this PSP . What does that tell us?
122:00 ? Yeah. So we can see attach that layer. That layer is
122:08 above. It is not that permeable below. It is not that
122:22 Okay, now, the if we're to get really detailed, it turns
122:37 that at the very bottom of the interval we see that there's a pretty
122:46 sp kick. So you'd be tempted say that that is very permeable.
123:05 we also remember that the way the works, there has to be a
123:12 difference. Mhm. So there's a salinity difference at the bottom but less
123:24 difference at the top. So it like it's a uniform sand but it
123:34 like there's less salinity difference at the . So we might think there's less
123:40 here, but there's really less salinity . So we kind of flag down
123:43 our minds that this is a bit a funny signature. Now we'll talk
123:50 this some more but we go over the resistive itty logs and again,
123:57 haven't discussed this in detail yet, we'll go through it. There are
124:03 typically three tracks to the resistance. likes, one has in effect widely
124:12 electrodes, one has narrowly spaced, the smaller one only detects a little
124:18 into the formation like an inch or spaces going to detect something like three
124:24 . And long spacing might detect something five or five or six ft into
124:28 formation. So the shallow resistive. is really typically just detecting in the
124:40 that's flushed or invaded. So so remember that we've got the over pressure
125:02 mud that invades the formation. And the drilling mud starts to get into
125:08 rock. So you can imagine in permeable formation if the drilling mud is
125:19 , what does it do to all native original fluids? Check them
125:25 pushes them back. So now our mud was fresh water. So we
125:34 that was resistant or conductive resistant. resistant. So we've got the freshwater
125:43 mud that's invading the formation and it's out everything there. So now I've
125:50 resist of drilling mud and resist of . So in the shallow formation what
125:57 we expect? The resistive Itty to almost brushing low. Well it's going
126:04 be very resistant. We've got resistive , we've got resistance fluid. Oh
126:12 sorry I was yeah we're there. and that's what we see. So
126:17 is a very permeable formation by RSP . It's probably sand and so near
126:23 borehole wall the drilling mud has flushed invaded and pushed out everything there.
126:30 brine, the oil whatever is It's pushed it all out. It's
126:35 extremely resistant. And so that's what what we see now deeper in the
126:45 . The mud can't flow that it might get an inch or two
126:48 the formation but we're gonna log well after it's drilled. So the mud
126:53 gone very deep. so deeper in formation, we still see that it's
126:58 resistive in the formation. So does tell us that's brian saturated or hydrocarbon
127:09 ? It's very resistant. Still hydrocarbon . Yeah. So why does it
127:20 we flush the shallow formation? Why the deeper formation not as resistant?
127:31 still an itty bitty bit of brine the in the un invaded formation so
127:36 it's oil but there might be 5% something of brine that makes it a
127:41 bit conductive but not very. So general when we look at the signature
127:52 from left to right and assuming that is a classic section. So just
127:59 and shale, how do we interpret layer? So once again the Gamma
128:06 says low radio activity which we're interpreting sand. Yeah, not shale,
128:20 , it's sand. So we say a very nice sand layer and then
128:24 sp tells us we have permeability, permeable. And then the resistive Itty
128:31 us that there's a high resistive itty in the shallow part because of the
128:41 out and then it goes that's that right there that's going to be the
128:47 because there's still a little bit of that makes it a little bit
128:51 Yeah, that's right. And so our interpretation. So this is the
128:55 dunk for a beautiful hydrocarbon reservoir, , permeable and resistant. So hydrocarbon
129:08 traded and there's generally a little little of brian and it's still like a
129:13 or two or something. So it's it's still very resistant. Here's the
129:20 , the shell is got resistive, ease around Say eight or 9.
129:31 then when we go into the hydrocarbon sands, we've got resistance around 200
129:36 or something like that. So very . Now this is getting a bit
129:43 advanced. But if we look at sp effect, this sand is
129:51 So the sp log in the top really say it's permeable as we
130:01 Why is that? Well, it's we've got oil, the oil is
130:07 . So the top of this reservoir probably 100% oil almost and the drilling
130:15 is freshwater. So do we have ionic possibilities there? No. So
130:25 the reservoir is permeable, we've got and fresh water and it's not that
130:31 ironically to mix because there's no reason there's no there's no ionic difference.
130:37 it doesn't need to equip vibrate. this is called the hydrocarbon effect on
130:43 sp log at the bottom because we have a little bit of brine in
130:49 bottom of the formation, it is to equip liberate, but the oil
130:55 all floating on top of it and not trying to equal a great,
131:00 we get a big kick in the , which shows us are porous and
131:06 sand and then it gets moderated, though its permeable, it gets moderated
131:10 there's nothing to electronically flow. So that's kind of the the detailed interpretation
131:18 this beautiful sandstone layer, hydrocarbon saturated just ready to produce. Okay,
131:36 gonna go through some more of these but now we know that we understand
131:41 gamma and the sp, we've talked those and again this seems overwhelming all
131:46 different responses. But as we work it all starts to get logical and
131:50 understand it. So the gamma ray , shale or not shale in
131:57 the S. P. Permissible or permeable. So we understand those guys
132:08 you can see that in this the gamma ray and then we can
132:14 a little bit lessening and even these log responses, the hydrocarbon effect dampening
132:21 sp log. So you're saying it's because it's not as like pronounced,
132:39 guess you could say like it's not a steep. So would there be
132:41 dampening down there at that last Would that be another sp Yes.
132:49 so you can see exactly the effect game that there's a kick, we
132:54 see that we're going into a porous least a permeable area. And so
133:00 definitely a kick. But they're saying that even schematically there's hydrocarbon on top
133:07 finally we're getting down to the bottom there's more a quill operation. So
133:14 wasn't a sharp corner if we're going the top of a brian. Say
133:19 you look up at the sandstone schematically when you hit the top of
133:24 brine there there's a nice kick. pretty definitive because there's the bryan versus
133:32 freshwater mud that's definitive. Likewise, we go into the bottom, coming
133:37 of the freshwater mud into an impermeable , but you can see that this
133:43 kind of gradual hydrocarbon, gradual for . Okay, I see that.
133:53 even up here, they've got an that in freshwater in the formation and
134:00 mud, there's no kick at Then you go into the brine and
134:05 start to get the kick. These schematic logs too, but that's that's
134:13 idea. Okay, so we and we talked a little bit about resist
134:21 e we'll go into these logs in , but you can see that when
134:26 hit the gas or oil, the activity kicks up, we go into
134:36 water, just a little bit going a resistive. Cool. It's it's
134:41 . So there's nothing conductive chips and conductive and hydrate, nothing conductive.
134:46 these are all high resistive, it salt straight salt, there's nothing conductive
134:52 rock salt. So the salt itself no ionic flow because it's rock salt
135:03 soon as I put a little water that it's gonna get conductive, but
135:09 we do that. No. so those are some of the basic
135:25 , we'll refer back to those in um various times. So here I'm
135:32 showing the the layers and if we to look at this in more detail
135:37 , you can we picked the top the sandstone there, the base of
135:42 sandstone there based on the gamma ray the S. P. And then
135:47 can even start to see what I'm to interpret as brine, oil and
135:53 on the top. Now part of is because I can see density
136:01 The density log says there's a little lower density here and then when I
136:05 into oil slightly higher density. Likewise the bottom, I'm gonna pick the
136:16 of the limestone there, the base the limestone, gas, oil and
136:24 water. Okay, so for the case here's logs that we that we
136:36 and made in lamarche. And so have drilled a couple of shallow wells
136:43 for 25 ft wells 425 ft. here we're logging so for example,
136:50 can see the geothermal gradient. We about that and this is around three
136:55 C per 100 m. So that's standard getting warmer as we go
137:01 And then let's look at the gamma here's low gamma ray than high gamma
137:07 . And how would you interpret these ray logs? What do you see
137:14 in the gamma ray log? Um then gamma ray. So well it's
137:32 from in like the dash sections, those are like relative to what's around
137:40 . Are there lows relative to what's them? So those are the
137:45 So those are gamma ray lows Yeah. And so what kind of
137:53 we have or do we have salt the surface? Carbonates on the surface
137:56 here? Like in the top 100 or four or 500 ft around
138:05 What kind of material is it? been out to Lamarque. So it's
138:12 even in Houston or the woodlands, what's the the predominant material in the
138:20 ? In the near surface? Yeah, clay, organics,
138:29 yeah, gumbo crap literally. So the near surface here we're gonna call
138:37 more or less a classic section. ? So if we've got gamma ray
138:43 , what are we going to call in general? Um sands.
138:55 You're sending and gamma ray high's what we going to call that? Our
139:03 not shells. Um Yeah, Shelli or clay rich. Yeah.
139:10 . So that's that's the near surface here. And so that's what we
139:14 guess strictly from the gamma ray log and we could put in these layers
139:20 that's what we did and we're calling layers sandy layers and then the layers
139:27 them are primarily more clay rich or like layers. So now let's go
139:36 and look at the resistive ITty And I think you can see that
139:40 some character in the resistive Itty log straight resistive itty we're in the near
139:48 here. So we remember that there's fresh water down to maybe 1000 ft
139:55 something. So and as fresh water are conducted resistant. Right? So
140:06 as you go down, tell me little bit about the resistive itty
140:13 Okay. Um Well those dash those are high festivity. So those
140:21 resistant Lehigh's. Yeah. So and did we draw those lines? Those
140:29 lines to separate our sections? From what and what are we
140:34 Those lines contain sand? Yeah. . So now you know that those
140:40 extending across that's our interpretation of the layer. So that's a bit of
140:46 guide. And now it kind of like those sand lines. Do they
140:52 with the resistive? Itty Yes. they seem to kind of define resistive
141:02 anomalies to so and again what kind resisted the anomalies are in there?
141:11 . So what does that generally indicate ? Well that's the sp not the
141:23 . Uh over. Um Probably can ask the question one more time.
141:38 sorry. So we're putting all these together and we're trying to interpret these
141:49 three logs and on the basis of gamma ray we know that this is
141:54 classic section. So we've we defined tops and the bottoms of the gamma
142:00 anomalies to give us what we are is our sand layers. Now we're
142:04 at the next log, which is resistive Itty log. And fortunately we're
142:10 that the sad layers seem to define Itty character to Yeah. And so
142:21 what's your thinking of that? What's rise to those resistive? Itty highs
142:28 could be brian or sol no because are resistive. O hydrocarbons. Well
142:39 could be, it could be hydrocarbons we're at 100 ft. It could
142:46 though, that's what we'd be expecting hydrocarbons and if I was in a
142:49 site that was contaminated I probably would , hey you've got hydrocarbons there,
142:55 your contaminant. But I'll tell you not hydrocarbons. So what else can
143:02 me resistance? The highs salt Right, brine. Saltwater that that's
143:20 . Right? Yeah. Yeah. I'm missing something here. What kind
143:32 water is not conductive, freshwater? what do you think? So I've
143:50 a sand and it's giving me a Itty high. What's in it,
143:59 you just said it there's just water the sand? Yeah, but what
144:08 of water this one? Yeah, . It's not salt water because that
144:14 be a relatively low, I don't why would the resistive it is throwing
144:19 off because in my head if it's don't know why like there's there's a
144:23 in my head with that but it's me, no, it's it's normal
144:28 we've talked unfortunate about conductivity and Itty and. So you know what
144:34 everybody screws them up. So you to be, it depends where you
144:38 think. You can talk about fresh as being low conductivity and brian being
144:43 conductivity, you can think of it way. But the logs are not
144:47 that way. In general, the give a resistive itty so it's better
144:52 think about high resistive Itty is being hydrocarbons because that's what we want.
144:57 where the logs are plotted. So we see that kick to the
145:02 conventionally that's high resistive itty. And we're looking for that, we'd like
145:08 see that kick to the right because hydrocarbons. But a water. Well
145:12 , if I'm a geotechnical guy or shallow earth guy, when I get
145:17 kick to the right, I'm happy because that's an indicator of fresh
145:29 So this is the classic signature of good water. Well, it's got
145:40 because sand is low gam er and I'm seeing that sandy very it's high
145:46 itty, which in this area would interpreted as fresh water And I want
145:54 see fresh water in general because I'm looking for an aquifer. If I'm
145:58 to build a subdivision down there or else or I'm a farmer and I
146:02 my water. Well I'm gonna be as punch, I'm gonna be happy
146:07 I may have an indication of freshwater only 100 ft deep. So that's
146:12 news and you can see in the well so we've got a, well
146:17 close by. If we look at in this interval, can you see
146:22 point steadily? Okay so this what's that's the gamma ray log is
146:28 gamma ray higher low. Okay so do we interpret that to be
146:35 sand And then I go across the Itty, resistive Itty high, very
146:41 defined. Mhm. Well how am going to interpret that? That's gonna
146:49 like our watery sand again, that's that we're going to interpret that as
146:54 fresh water saturated sand and it's a one. Okay. Yeah. Okay
147:23 with just those two logs that's how can interpret it. That's the that's
147:27 lethality and the saturation at Lamarque. we've made some progress and now we
147:38 plotted the conductivity which is just one the resistive itty. That's the that's
147:52 as a little example of log So now you've just done your first
147:58 interpretation in the last day. Oh and again there are a lot
148:11 different logs. It's intimidating at first confusing. It's amazing how how nice
148:21 becomes. I like log analysis a because they're all different physics and it
148:26 get complicated but it will make sense this is just these are just the
148:31 and there's a reason. So we , it's a bit of a
148:35 I don't know whether you like playing games or anything but it's nice to
148:40 these little puzzles. A lot of do a puzzle called word all.
148:49 I'm not very good at it. well my family and friends we all
148:57 all play it and so we either in our beer because it took us
149:04 to get it or you exchange that made your week because you got it
149:09 two and that's very special. But been doing them somebody told me about
149:17 about a year ago so I've done most days for the last year and
149:22 you get your statistics which is also of fun. So I think I've
149:28 over the last year and doing probably 200. I've got them in to
149:34 times. Ah I've missed a Not gotten them at six so that's
149:44 and then I'm averaging about 3.9. takes almost four tries to get
149:49 That's that's my stance. My husband always gets them in 2 to
149:54 I don't know how but he's never a four. Really? Yeah he's
149:59 so good and he doesn't look I up words. I'm like five letter
150:04 with an ancient and Ian them in . He'll just oh it's this like
150:08 do you know he gets them 2 3 every time. Well that is
150:12 really good. That's that's excellent. very jealous of it. Yeah.
150:18 that's that's really, really good. know, actually these statistics are kept
150:23 over the world to, it's kind funny and you can look at which
150:26 in the world does the best person , but which english speaking countries in
150:30 world do the best. And I as I recollect the best statistics coming
150:36 new Zealand or Australia or some So that that's kind of surprising.
150:42 Anyway, two is very good. and three is very good too.
150:49 for I think for most people is average. So he's well above
150:58 Oh good. Well, well logs a bit the same. So you've
151:01 to try to guess what's what's the of saturated this log uh just for
151:09 , if you're musically interested, we also take these logs And I tried
151:15 them too through a midi synthesizer to . So this is just for
151:21 I think I probably played them for . I don't know whether a couple
151:23 years ago or not, but this the idea um it turned out that
151:29 of one of my students was a musician. And so I had this
151:34 to map take well, logs and them through a midi synthesizer to voices
151:39 so we did that and you can the well log and just make music
151:44 of it. And so we it was a lot of fun and
151:48 it turned out one of the scG was in new Orleans. So we
151:52 this paper in new Orleans about what I did call it was logjam
152:01 and then the seismic symphonies. So we composed it. Part of the
152:08 was to that if someone was handicapped was visually impaired, my idea was
152:15 map this to sound so that if could hear you could maybe hear the
152:20 instead of seeing them. Because one the guys I taught with was semi
152:28 , he's one of the best well in the world, but he gradually
152:31 going blind ross crane and if you up crane you'll see that He's he's
152:38 Worldwide Master for Log Interpretation Cross And he's got a website called Spectrum
152:46 . But we taught a course together he taught me most of what I
152:49 about. Well logging, he's one the best in the world and uh
152:57 unfortunately he was blind. I used take him to class and he would
153:00 onto my arm and I'd walk into class and then he would explain while
153:08 . So part of this idea was of for a disability like that,
153:12 you could take a visual log, is just numbers. And then the
153:17 synthesizer takes numbers and maps into a on a keyboard. And then from
153:25 keyboard note, you can give it voice you want and you shape it
153:30 . So you can map uh well to music anyway, that's that's just
153:40 thing you can do with, well if you're interested. Okay let's uh
153:46 a start on logging. I'm just to switch to another presentation. Okay
154:11 we've looked now at caliper logs, a bit of understanding of those.
154:16 looked at the S. P. which gave us permeability and electronic flow
154:25 then we looked at the gamma ray was strictly measuring the naturally emitted gamma
154:31 from the formation which we interpret to largely a clay indicator or not.
154:37 we talked a little bit of a itty logs but we haven't discussed that
154:43 much yet. So let's move on another log that we use all the
154:47 . And this is the acoustic log the sonic log. And this is
154:57 a pretty simple log. It just a little bender, twitter chirp er
155:09 source that just bleeps gives a little that goes into the that little bleep
155:27 vibration goes into the drilling mud and hits the wall and then refracts along
155:35 wall. But of course it's everywhere the wall. And so it's giving
155:39 little pulse. Then we have a and we just detect the travel
156:00 So in the very simplest incarnation, way it used to be. You
156:08 have one receiver and you would just the receiver would maybe be spaced a
156:13 . So you just get the travel across a meter and then that's exactly
156:19 the log was plotted was just transit . So time and then we knew
156:24 the spacing was. So you've got over that distance and the reciprocal,
156:30 just the velocity. So with output transit time which was really won over
156:37 velocity or the slowness. So that the basic tool that had some
156:45 If the tool was tilted in the a little bit, so a better
156:52 to do it was to have two and then transmit and then just take
156:57 difference in travel time across between these receivers. So the transit time across
157:13 here to here in the formation would you an interval and this might these
157:17 might be separated by a foot. that would give you the microseconds travel
157:23 foot in the formation and so that actually slowness, It's one over
157:36 So that was the basic measurement, measurement. And then as good
157:44 if we've got two receivers, why use four receivers. And if you've
157:47 one source, why not use two , we always like more data.
157:51 so this configuration gives us an even measurement because now I can take the
157:58 time from this guy to these receivers the upper guy. These receivers and
158:04 can get four or eight measurements and I can process those a lot better
158:11 give me what would be the effect transit time between receiver one and receiver
158:17 two and three. And now I get a really good estimate of the
158:22 time in the formation and I start get rid of tilt of the tool
158:28 the time in the fluid and I get the time and the formation and
158:36 the output is strictly the transit time the formation. And then if I'm
158:45 have four receivers why not have eight . And now I can measure the
158:53 of time across all these receivers and output that number And why not put
158:59 transmitter up here and get 16. you can just go on and on
159:04 we get lots of data and we process it for noise for errors with
159:07 for all kinds of stuff. But the idea is just the sonic time
159:13 an interval. So that's it. here's here's another configuration. I have
159:19 source here, receivers, receivers and another source here and I can measure
159:28 will be in the well but I measure the travel times between all these
159:32 combinations and then just output it. time across the central party. Now
159:39 can see the tool itself has slots it. Why do you think that
159:51 ? It's gonna grab some water? ideas why this tool itself would have
160:16 slots? Um I'm not sure what mean. Let's step out like a
160:28 , I'm not sure. Well you imagine if we cause a vibration up
160:35 that's intended to go witnesses in the , through the fluid into the formation
160:40 back. Cause the vibration here. gonna happen to the tool? Oh
160:48 see. It's to not make it rigid. Yeah, well vibration here
160:53 basically to propagate down the tool and velocity of steel is around five or
160:58 m per second. So the vibration going to go down the tool and
161:02 picked up and it's going to arrive the formation. And so all I'm
161:07 to get is the speed of steel the tool. And how interesting is
161:14 ? Not very in this case. you put slots and the vibration goes
161:21 but it bounces around and basically slots the wave going down the tool so
161:27 the tool itself does not support the and then cause noise. So we
161:36 to, we have to have the rigid because it's got to go into
161:44 well and we've got to pull it and it's got to be high pressure
161:46 high temperature and all that stuff and get caught in the well, especially
161:51 open hole so it has to be rigid but I'm trying to make it
161:57 without conducting. Sound very easily. it's lots of good. So this
162:06 the kind of um Sonic tool we and you can see these tools are
162:13 long that you know the whole tool with all the measurements might be 45
162:18 50 ft long and that's why you to assemble this tool and then lower
162:22 all into the well. So you're about practical things. What's what's the
162:33 of the tool? Well it has go inside whatever whatever you've got in
162:36 well so that's key. Um What of pressure can it tolerate? Well
162:44 kill O. P. S. . A. P. S.
162:47 . Per foot. So this tool go down to about 20,000 ft.
162:52 will tolerate 350° off 175° C. we said 30 degrees C. Per
163:02 m. So this tool will go to something like 6000 m or 20
163:08 25,000 ft. So you can see it's rated really for a 20,000 ft
163:16 and you don't want to screw any that stuff up because if the well
163:21 deeper than this tool can't handle So that's something and then how you
163:35 this. This is the race on . So we said that that schematic
163:39 that there was a source than eight . So we're gonna get waves that
163:45 by like this, they're getting we're gonna stack this at different move
163:50 and then extract the velocity and we do this all automatically. So no
163:55 intervention, you just stack across all slopes and the slope that has the
163:59 power is the velocity. And then output that velocity. So this is
164:04 array sonic with an array processing stacker to find the most power. The
164:12 power of the stack corresponds to the move out or slope or velocity.
164:18 then at each time I can get velocity event and separate the P and
164:23 shear waves by stacking across this rate that's all done automatically. So it's
164:29 it's a nice tool even if we had four receivers that I can still
164:42 and maybe get the velocity as well the first arrival. So we do
164:48 at every level. I extract the wave velocity at every level and the
164:53 wave velocity every level and then output as blog. So here are our
165:04 logs and the the frequency of the for the little event is typically around
165:11 hertz. So the seismic band is 10 hertz. The sonic band is
165:17 10,000 hertz. And the ultrasonic band around a megahertz, a million hertz
165:24 cycles per second. So these are logs. Now, if we go
165:43 here, we can see that in particular reservoir, the p and the
165:50 velocities have very different character. So P wave velocity in this section is
165:57 is sandy Shelley. And then we into a sand reservoir and then do
166:02 sandy sally Shelley's push with her now from shale to sand. For the
166:09 wave you can see there's a big . Now, can you remember why
166:14 might be? Why is the difference the shear wave velocity going from shale
166:18 sand? Is it due to the of the consolidation a little bit?
166:28 we said shale is kind of clay that is malleable and bendable. So
166:35 shell doesn't have that big rigidity. is glass, it's very rigid and
166:41 . So the rigidity or the shear velocity of sand is anomalous Lehigh.
166:52 that's a nice sand indicator. So turns out that this reservoir is oil
167:27 . I made it green, it's saturated. But what do you think
167:32 reservoir would look like for these logs in this green area instead of
167:40 There was actually gas. How would on this interval? How would you
167:49 these logs to change? Wouldn't it higher? I remember this from
168:07 wasn't it? Gas doesn't do Well, gas doesn't do anything to
168:18 rigidity. Right. So, probably the shear wave blog, what did
168:25 say? We said that when gas in it lowers the density, but
168:28 the rigidity. So we said that should make the shear wave velocity go
168:35 or down a little bit. We that it's gonna go up a little
168:43 because it's lower density and the density in the denominator. That's right,
168:49 . So if this if if we this oil with with gas, we'd
168:57 that the reservoir probably would be slightly . If it was gassy. The
169:04 wave, we said that the the lowers the density a little bit,
169:11 makes it faster, but it lowers compressibility a lot. So, if
169:19 put gas in an area with gas low velocity, what do I expect
169:25 P wave to do the P wave ? If I put gas in
169:31 if it lowers the compressibility, then would be significantly lower. It should
169:38 significantly lower. So, if if was gas in the sand, I
169:42 expect the P wave velocity to drop down. So one of the indicators
169:56 could have was if I shifted this wave velocity over to the P wave
170:01 and overlay these and it was a sand, I'd see the gas
170:07 the P wave, I'd see the increase this and we're gonna get a
170:12 . Okay, and that cross we're gonna talk about that next time
170:17 respect to neutron and density porosity logs we see the same effect.
170:27 once again, if I shifted the wave velocity just over laid it
170:32 we'd be coming along with oil, going to see a big kick here
170:37 the shear wave. But if it gas, I'd see an even bigger
170:41 and then I would see a big the other way with the p wave
170:46 . So that separation is going to a good indicator that it's a gas
170:56 . Okay, great. Now we take just the ratio of those guys
171:02 of course we get the V. . V. S ratio that discriminates
171:08 some of the rock types, sandstone very low because the shear wave velocity
171:12 high and we can see the different . If we put gas in it
171:19 this ratio is gonna get even lower the P wave velocity is going to
171:24 , the shear wave velocity is going increase and that's going to drop the
171:28 . P. Over P. S even more. Now, why do
171:33 worry about that? Well, I'm to take a three D. Seismic
171:37 and try to process it into a P wave velocity. Do the inversion
171:43 that shear wave velocity and then I'm take the ratio of those maps.
171:47 I'm gonna search on those maps and for anomalous areas and that's gonna give
171:54 an indicator of, say, a sand or something. So that's what
171:58 trying to do all the time. , and that's just another picture of
172:11 logging tool in this case. It's piston sources and these can be used
172:17 generate flexible waves that gives us even and better shear wave velocity. So
172:22 is just one of the more advanced logging tools. Okay, as a
172:36 think you may have seen this guy Stephanie. But just to just to
172:41 it, here's our first little So we want to interpret this
173:00 So I've defined two intervals and this , there's a lot of information on
173:09 , so we gotta pick through So we've talked, we've talked about
173:18 few things. Uh Number one is the caliper log. Now we we
173:27 to find the caliper log is the dashes. And so you can see
173:34 the caliper log is buried in But this is the caliper log.
173:45 we first look at the caliper log say, does the caliper log show
173:51 fairly consistent barbell? And what do think? Yes, yes, there's
173:58 huge excursion, there's no wash out , There's nothing really obvious there.
174:04 , we can see that the bit is constant. You see the bit
174:07 track here. Yes, they just one bit, so the bit size
174:12 constant. Now you can see that caliper log is a little bit less
174:19 the bit size. And how can be again, horizontal pressure could it
174:29 be squishing the well, that's one , what else did we say about
174:35 mud cake fluid was going into the and it was leaving residual residue.
174:46 there's that and we're seeing something like happen. It's either this formation is
174:51 or there's residue build up. So just make a note of that.
174:54 by and large the well looks pretty . There's a bit of an indication
174:57 some mythology on the caliber log. that's great. Now our next log
175:03 the gamma ray. And here's the ray here. So the real
175:15 So there's a little bit of an but here's 0 to 1 50 in
175:21 gout on the gamma ray. So are 10 divisions. So each division
175:26 is 15. So when I look the gamma ray and the Fernie,
175:33 its value? Um 15. So be like what? 1 30?
175:48 sorry. These slides were, I download them. So I have to
175:51 at my computer so that's 1.50. that's going to be So less than
176:07 . So like around 120. somewhere in 1 20. So an
176:12 gamma re reading of 1 20. that pure clean sand? No.
176:19 what did we say? So what we gonna probably say that is we're
176:23 to say that's pretty radioactive. What it shell? Probably a shell.
176:30 we're thinking we're thinking shale and it's definitive. So we're gonna put that
176:37 in and that's how we color coded . How a color coded dot for
176:42 . Now we go into the top the nordic and what happens? The
176:47 are Hi. I mean. I'm sorry. Hello. Yeah so
176:54 how are we going to start to about the nordic. What's the first
176:56 you're gonna say about it? It um low radio radio activity. So
177:07 don't know anything about this geology right . So all we can really say
177:13 that that's probably not a shale because seeing what's probably a shale there.
177:20 this is not shale, I don't what it is yet but it's not
177:24 shale. Okay so that's that first now this is a bit complicated.
177:37 me. But these logs are also in microseconds per meter. So this
177:44 the transit time across the interval straight long it takes to go across that
177:51 over a meter. So because I've got one piece of graph paper and
177:56 trying to plot a lot on There's the compression all way of slowness
178:02 interval transit. Plus there's the shear slowness and they're on different scales.
178:08 there's an energy factor here which we're going to worry about. But this
178:13 the basic, the basic log we're going to see is the D.
178:15 compression compression delta T. Just means slowness or the time across. So
178:22 I've got a small interval, small . T. Delta T. That
178:30 high velocity long transit time across a . Low velocity. Mhm. So
178:38 velocities to the right, low velocities the left. But the standard.
178:43 log provides the transit time because that's that's the measurement it's making. And
178:50 the standard well logs are plotted in is one over velocity. However they
178:58 mess with your mind because small slowness big velocity. So high velocity is
179:08 the right. Okay. Small slow our short transit time. Okay so
179:26 interpret these guys just to get extract numbers in the nordic if I'm looking
179:34 this. So D. T. . All the delta T compression all
179:39 the slowness is the solid line. here's the solid line and I've just
179:45 kind of an average across here. the delta T compression als is on
179:52 scale which I've highlighted up here. wave sheer weight scales. So what's
179:59 what's the D. T. Compression in the nord? What value is
180:09 ? Wait Wait Where's The 100? The 500? I'm Sorry. Well
180:14 can see it on the log scale . Here's the 100. So that
180:18 thing is 1-500. That's right. . So then yeah that's the standard
180:25 of way that the the well logs annotated. They give you the value
180:30 the one side of the graph and value of the other side of the
180:34 and then everything else is interpolated. we've got for the p wave you've
180:38 102 103 104 105 100 microseconds per . For the sheer weight scale you
180:45 see it goes 203 104 105 106 . Okay. So one piece of
180:52 paper with four different measurements on But our interest right now is just
180:57 two the P wave and the shear Friends at times. Okay, so
181:04 the P wave would be that thick . So that's going to be
181:07 That's right. Okay. So this the P wave is 200 microseconds per
181:18 . The shear wave here is this , the dotted line. I've just
181:24 it as a dotted line. Here's shear wave. And what's that?
181:29 it's 200 303. What are those 2040 60? So like 3
181:36 Yeah, so it's 3 40 microseconds . And then if we move up
181:44 the Fernie, what's what's the Freddy wave here? That's gonna be
181:53 62 60. Yeah. And then shear wave 60 sets 200 300
182:07 So you can see that the Fernie lower velocity and the shear wave is
182:22 lower velocity. So what does that us again? The shear wave is
182:33 low velocity. Oh so then it's goes back in with the shells because
182:38 shells are very um what's this Yeah, we'll make up one if
182:49 I just make them up if I remember. So so we said that
182:58 expect the shells to be non We expect that to give low shear
183:05 . We've got a low shear And oh guess what? It's highly
183:09 . So are you getting convinced that that you've got it interpreted correctly?
183:19 it's all this is looking pretty slam as a shell, high radioactive low
183:28 velocity and moderate P wave velocity. this guy is clean. So it's
183:38 Shelly And it has a pretty high . This is 200 microseconds per
183:46 So how many meters per second is 200 microseconds per meter is how many
183:54 per second? Um My crow. you got to take one over
184:03 This is one over the velocity. is the slowness. So we've got
184:09 over 200 microseconds per meter. Uh micro is um So just remember how
184:24 do it just for you can just microseconds and put 10 to the -6
184:32 . So that's a million over 200 . okay so that's 200 microseconds then
184:58 1 to the -4. 1 to four. No. Oh to the
185:15 yeah so 2 6. So So just two times negative six per.
185:28 this is a slowness. So this one over velocity. Oh so I
185:33 do one over that. I'm sorry just I'm not very good at the
185:47 why we're doing it. So it's be 1/2. That's my right.
186:25 these like iphone calculators are just not . Well, you know, and
186:33 stuff like this. I would just just write it down and don't be
186:37 to do it. Just put one by 200 microseconds per meter for
186:46 Just write it down and then microseconds that. So you got one over
186:53 times 10 to the minus six seconds meter and then 10 to the minus
187:01 goes on top. So that's 10 the six divided by 200 m per
187:09 . And then you've got a million and six zeros divided by 200 Which
187:16 you 5000 I would say don't be to write all that stuff down,
187:22 never get it right if you if jump. Yeah, I kept like
187:27 and going like, oh no, I write it all down and I
187:31 to I have to do that very five substitution to get it right.
187:38 I can tell you that almost nobody my grand class would be able to
187:41 that right now because we just we don't do arithmetic calculations anymore. So
187:50 just we're beyond that. But with kind of stuff, you sort of
187:56 to do it to check the computer because it's like my Gps if I'm
188:02 to get someplace in the city. type it in and it might take
188:05 to exactly the wrong place. For reason it's better that I know more
188:09 less where I'm going. I'm sure see this all the time. Trying
188:12 come in from the woodlands. where the hell am I going?
188:15 my Gps says this and I'm not sure about that. So, it's
188:21 to have an idea of what you're . And so that's what I feel
188:23 all these numbers. Yeah, we're computer process everything, but it's better
188:28 we know what the answer. More less should be so microsecond per meter
188:35 per second, it's gonna be a divided by 200 which is 5000.
188:39 5000 m per second is pretty So that's not a pure sandstone,
188:44 example, that's getting more carbonated. we don't know what that nard egg
188:53 , but it's certainly not a dirty , and it's certainly not a pure
188:58 , It's something else going on Uh, so I suggest go through
189:10 calculations. There's the answer to their so just a little exercise to start
189:15 this up. Just just do this for the Fernie the VPN Bs and
189:20 the VPN Bs. The answers are the next page. But make sure
189:23 got them and then look at BP B. S. And those are
189:28 of what kind of rock it And then you can see what kind
189:32 rock. It really is the Fernie is a classic. That's simple.
189:39 nordic is complicated. It's a complicated . It's a real rock and it's
189:45 cell ish Isse church. It's and got sandstone in it but then it's
189:50 got limestone cement, ation. So it's a real rock, it's a
189:56 rock but we can pick this apart its velocities too. So we know
190:05 V. P. D. S here that's typically somewhere between sandstone and
190:10 . So okay so we can kind guess this this guy is easy.
190:20 shells slam dunk from strictly these two . It's pretty hard to guess what
190:25 is. We need more logs to nail this down like a P.
190:28 log and some other logs that we'll about. Oh great well great
190:35 That's good. We'll continue on with next friday. If the gods are
190:41 to us let's maybe just try to friday afternoon in person quickly. See
190:51 step. Yeah so let's let's try meet friday friday afternoon in in person
191:30 something goes awry. Not not not but that might be good. Good
191:36 some variety. And uh other other , I've got a bunch of other
191:40 . It's a little bit easier to the exercises on paper and in
191:45 Okay so tentatively let's think about If there's a change that's that's all
191:50 too. We actually have our faculty on friday. The last friday but
191:55 think I will largely missed our faculty next friday. I'll maybe take a
192:04 of breaks and pop into it a bit. But Okay, so
192:10 Good work today. That was We went through a lot of
192:14 So sure your brain and your sinuses both full, but any questions just
192:22 them over to me, our, steward at u H dot E D
192:26 and then we'll carry on next, friday. Okay. Sounds
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