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BIOL 4315/6315 Neuroscience (18563/18591) - NEURO Lecture 03 History of Neuroscience 03 TUE-TH
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00:01 Yeah, Welcome back. This is Lecture three. We covered some of
00:07 key historical what I would call stations intersections, cultures and theories and trying
00:17 understand the localization of the brain. different parts of the brain and what
00:25 parts of the brain are responsible for localization of specific functions. We talked
00:31 . Criminologists have tried to do it looking at the surface of the skull
00:36 ultimately we derived some of the very functions that different parts of the brain
00:42 responsible for by looking at the And this is an injury due to
00:51 stroke, to warm trauma to the that resulted in very specific loss of
00:58 . So broke this area expressive Wernicke? S area, receptive aphasia
01:04 in addition to that we also cover types of occasion, economic or measure
01:08 , global occasion. So no, four different types of emphasis. These
01:13 very good exam questions and also the is that still we're looking at the
01:19 of the brain. Following injuries are death post Morten. Now, the
01:27 case that we discussed, that is one of the most famous cases in
01:31 history as well as probably psychology and on psychiatry history of Phineas gage because
01:38 his case the trauma that was pretty to the frontal part of his brain
01:44 in the changes of his character and changes of his personality, inability and
01:51 his emotions and anger and executive We're lost as well. So that
01:59 us that certain parts of the brain responsible for expressing language, hearing,
02:06 than other parts of the brain are for things like personality, for things
02:13 aggression for things like executive functions. so based on these cases, we
02:20 learning about what different parts of the are doing at the same time In
02:26 19th century. You have the beginning the cortical stimulation with different parts of
02:31 brain are being stimulated. So if stimulate motor cortex and it causes movement
02:36 the arm, you now understand that part of the brain is a motor
02:41 , you stimulate another part of the and it's the person or a subject
02:46 expressing emotional uh science. And you , you have now stimulating or are
02:54 the emotional centers of the brain. will talk about Charles, Darwin,
03:00 we haven't done because he is responsible the theory of evolution. Not alone
03:06 course, but very largely contributed to as he had an unprecedented opportunity to
03:12 onto the expeditions to the Galapagos. off the coast of Ecuador or the
03:19 and these uh I'll informations, they incredible diversity of flora and fauna.
03:28 in his case he started asking and , asking a question of how local
03:35 and an animal trying to survive in local environment looks like on the
03:42 So, he was looking at the of the birds. He was looking
03:46 the turtles, he was looking at anatomical features of the local uh fauna
03:54 what he's discovered is that based despite fact that the silence are located in
03:59 proximity to each other, they have different natural surroundings and to survive them
04:07 procreate animals have to adjust and to that, they do. So some
04:13 need to get their food by having beaks. Other birds don't need long
04:18 . So the ones that have long on that island will survive. It's
04:22 . And if you don't have a beak, you may have a better
04:25 to survive islands. And then you at the population of the birds and
04:29 say, oh, these are the species are related species of birds.
04:35 guys have long weeks, but they essentially here to survive because of the
04:41 . So evolution of behavioral traits, , survival of the fittest.
04:49 All of these concepts are concepts of theory of evolution, adaptability, which
04:56 is plasticity. So what are we about? We're talking about anatomical plasticity
05:00 the outside of the body, how body adjusts. You may grow things
05:05 between your fingers because you need to and that will make it easier for
05:10 to swim over time. And the part of the animal that will develop
05:15 little like phalanges, additional kind of from the Philando state will survive in
05:21 water better. And so that is only the case for the outside of
05:27 animal, but also what is reflected this environment in which the animal lives
05:34 humans live in in their brains and the anatomical knots and their brains.
05:42 adaptability and being able to adapt is plasticity because the brain is plastic.
05:51 synapses. Sir. Plastic you learned , you can unlearn certain behavior,
05:58 can form habits, you can get of habits, we can form different
06:03 . So this is all part of plasticity process. You adopted the
06:09 It's a free free style water diaries go underwater 150 ft deep and they're
06:16 four minutes. I think most of would find ourselves unconscious performance without oxygen
06:24 high pressures. But you adopt and form certain things in the environment that
06:30 live in. And if you look animals that use visions such as humans
06:36 nonhuman primates like monkeys in their visual in the exhibit hall lobe you will
06:42 a very fine structure that we call retina topic map or a point by
06:49 representation of this outside world that you're here. And let's say you turned
06:53 into a million of pixels, individual and each one of these pixels will
06:59 its own pixel representation of point in primary visual cortex in the exhibit alone
07:06 the organization and the anatomical structure and connectivity there is very complex and that's
07:14 a lot of their animals life is to being driven by the visual
07:21 If you look in the brains of rodents and in this case rodents is
07:27 very good example because rodents feel their by whisking around and they whisk around
07:37 they look for food and that determines survivability that determines whether they mate and
07:46 the whisking is anatomy. You have number of rows on the whisker pad
07:53 certain number of whiskers in each row a lot of animals have whispers.
07:59 you have cats that have whispers and use whispers, choir, their dogs
08:03 have whisker pads, Okay, so not just unique to rodents, but
08:08 don't as humans we have if anything facial hair, but we don't use
08:17 facial hair for finding food or In any case procreation could be an
08:28 made, There may be, but animals like rodents do. And each
08:34 of these dots, each one of little dots that you see in this
08:40 , in the primaries amount of sensory and the rodents represents an individual
08:47 So there is five rows of there are five rows of what we
08:53 barrels in the sonata sensory barrel off the rodents. And if you
08:59 to cut one whisker off the there would be one barrel from all
09:04 these that would just disappear over time the brain is plastic and the brain
09:11 represent the external environment by which the are stimulated in which they live in
09:18 where they have to survive. And is why the evolution theory and adaptability
09:25 plasticity, it's not just the body on the outside, inevitably the body
09:32 on the outside, the sizes of beaks, phalanges and so on.
09:36 behavior diving underwater is reflected and changes the brain maps and plastic. Brain
09:43 can adjust uh and learn and also . And it depends what kind of
09:52 you are and the complexity of these . And don't worry about all of
09:56 details that you heard here today about barrel cortex or the primary visual cortex
10:02 they will know a lot of these as we look in the visual
10:07 You'll actually understand not only point by organization, but the geometry of the
10:13 and where the movement comes from emotional and you'll also understand some out of
10:21 system. We're going to look at humans amount of sensitive system, the
10:25 and then we can come back and homunculus to Ruden calculus, if you
10:31 for rodents. Now, we're still at gross macroscopic structures in the
10:38 When we talk about localization of brain , we're looking at the injuries.
10:43 looking Broca's area. What do we in order to really understand those selves
10:52 barrel cortex is do they just reveal in the brain? If you get
10:56 brain, they don't, the brain is rather translucent So you cannot visualize
11:04 cells. And until 19th century there's microscopes that have resolution or sensitivity That's
11:11 enough to resolve individual neurons which are 10 μm in diameter. And then
11:17 have This microscopes and they come about the 1820s. And if you look
11:25 at the brain and you put it a microscope and you don't do anything
11:29 this brain tissue, you can take slice of the brain. You won't
11:34 able to see much of anything, kind of a darker gray matter and
11:39 spots, wider matter and some maybe shadows and outlines would look like cell
11:47 . And so at that point there's raging debate of what the brain is
11:52 of. Whether the brain is one was called system, the sensation,
12:00 network of living material that has cytoplasmic and has all of these millions or
12:10 nuclear Within one side of plasma continuous . Son of uh and on the
12:20 hand, in biology and in you have the proponents of self theory
12:28 neuron doc dream that argues that like biological tissues at the same time,
12:35 as they invented microscopes, they're trying understand what are the cells in the
12:40 . What did the south look like the muscle? What do they
12:44 What are their shapes and how can describe them? And so on.
12:47 of the cells are very large in body, others are small. The
12:51 are quite small and so you have cells that are called neurons and each
12:59 their own nucleus that is surrounded by membrane. So this is the neuron
13:06 training versus the ridiculous theory, which that they're not discrete units. They're
13:13 cramped in there, one cytoplasm surrounded one large membrane. And these are
13:20 folks are very important. And leading to our understanding of what individual neurons
13:26 like and postulating how exactly they look anatomically, how they process the
13:33 how they may be plastic and behavior how they communicate with other neurons and
13:40 gold. You is shown here on left, developed a method at the
13:47 , there was silver re agents that used for photographic development. So,
13:51 you took a picture would be developed these silver nitrate free agents. And
13:55 uses the silver nitrate free agents. is the beauty of the basic
14:00 He tries to see what these re will do on the brains. And
14:05 he applies them to the brains. the labs. And what he finds
14:09 if only a small fraction of neurons up the gold. We stand so
14:14 to a few percent of all of neurons. And when they do take
14:18 up, we take it up it's in the Dunn drives, it's
14:23 the selma sits in the hoc It's and they really, really find
14:28 which allows to visualize these incredibly detailed of neurons and how they may be
14:39 and interconnected to other neurons. Ramona how shown here. Sitting in the
14:46 . He uses this very famous technique camera lucida with the mirror that reflects
14:52 essentially the image of the stain cell he's looking at. And using this
14:59 , he draws these beautiful drawings and will show you other drawings of neurons
15:04 the cortex. He spends hours and and hours, he has some interesting
15:12 but he spends hours in essentially staining brains and drawing and trying to understand
15:17 structure of the brand in particular of cortex and to understand, imply he
15:24 through the anatomy into the function of different girls and the right to have
15:30 on Sherington who claimed help explain this of the synapse, which is a
15:38 place why one neuron communicates with It's called the synapse. And if
15:45 look In 19 in 1873, community publishes this method of single cells,
15:54 we cannot visualize individual synopsis. So Charles Carrington's idea and pointing that term
16:02 the synapse of what happens in the . It's not something that was visualized
16:06 1950s. Mhm. But the interesting is ramon alcohol not only draws these
16:17 and detailed networks off the south that up the golgi stain, but he
16:25 says that look, the democrats are here and brown and the selma's and
16:33 and in black, he is showing axons. And so he here is
16:41 and actually writing in his writings about information will come into dan writes,
16:48 is in the form of these black and we'll come into close to the
16:56 and then something happens. So he prophecies that there is a processing that
17:02 , the inputs come in and then soma, the cell body puts the
17:09 and puts the outputs through the acts them again in the form of the
17:14 areas. So we knew that there an electrical communication that there is electricity
17:21 nerves and strategical barney, but we really understand and know that there is
17:27 very sure sparks electrical sparks action potentials get produced and that's how the cells
17:35 and and they end up releasing Which is a chemical. And that
17:41 get discovered until 1921. Despite the that familiar gold, you developed this
17:49 stain that picks up individual neurons. a proponent of ridiculous theory and Ramona
17:59 how most famous spanish scientists probably was Dera Monica how And he is not
18:11 propose mental neuron doctrine, but he that this communication and these connections between
18:17 are plastic, but they change over . Whoa ! That's so forward thinking
18:27 , we both accept Nobel prize but the remain rivals to him and
18:33 this ridiculous theory versus the neuron dark . So, first of all,
18:40 can discover things. It can be , you don't have to agree always
18:46 what are the dominant thoughts are or mentors thoughts are. You can still
18:52 the noble prize together. Uh And another lesson here is in basic
19:01 You can just try things like silver agents and brandish can really do it
19:06 . Human brains in the hospital are the clinic, were living brains for
19:11 matter. But without having these tools these preparations, whether the animal brains
19:18 postmortem human brains, we wouldn't know understand all of this. You
19:24 all of this detailed special anatomy that have. And these are some more
19:29 the drawings of demonic a how And at this point they still don't
19:34 . The neurons produce an action And another stain that allows neuroscientists over
19:43 that period of time to start understanding individual neurons look like, what their
19:49 is look like is initial stain. initial stain is different because instead of
19:56 the fraction of neurons, missile stains all of the south neurons and
20:04 But it doesn't really stand their He doesn't really stand there done rides
20:09 accident. So you don't visualize precise . And each one of these little
20:15 dots is a cell that is picked a missile stain. And where you
20:24 these dog bands, blue bands, means that the cell density is very
20:30 . It means that the cells are up very high density next to each
20:35 . This structure here is actually the and it has this dominant one
20:41 The parameter excited to resell layer that's densely packed themselves at a stack of
20:47 of each other. And then you this structure here. Next did.
20:54 you can very clearly discern. 1234566 and 66 like half moon bands going
21:10 . And this structure is a lot the nucleus nucleus which has six densely
21:15 dominance cell layers. And this is stand by France. Not so and
21:23 new cell stay name allows to visualize individual neurons. But unlike the gold
21:33 revealed precise anatomy all of the processes outgrowth of the dendrites and axons.
21:41 same doesn't do it but because it all of the cells and you can
21:47 at the individual units that are sparsely certain parts of the brain and units
21:54 neurons and south are populating densely other of the brain. People like dr
22:00 broad Hman used missile stain and devised science of cider architecture. Missile Sang
22:08 distinguish between glia and neurons but it's very poor way of distinguishing between glia
22:15 neurons. And you really have to a specific marker neuron specific marker to
22:21 out the difference between these two dominant of cells in the brain. But
22:27 broad Hman using these cyber gets the methods. So what are these cyber
22:33 methods in different functional areas? Are by observing variations in the structure of
22:41 cells. So it's like the the packing densities of the south.
22:46 many layers is it? Six One dominant players in three layers.
22:52 about it. You have a it could be the same size.
22:55 house has three stories, another one six but they're both the same
23:01 The one that has three storeys has rooms and 15 hallways. The one
23:06 has six stories has six rooms. not always it's very different how you're
23:13 move around those two different houses. many people you may be hosting in
23:20 different houses, but the size of house is the same. And so
23:24 exactly the psycho architecture. You can about it this way. This some
23:30 that will fit 15 people from the size and there's other houses that will
23:35 fit six people. Five people will there and that's the same with the
23:40 and they're packing densities and 60 billion uses the national stain and essentially describing
23:48 brain and dozens of these different areas some of these descriptions for example,
23:54 17 which is primary visual cortex or the one for the one visual
24:01 one is still very commonly used in modern neuroscience language. So finally he
24:09 it right. Remember the foreign ologists tried to do it by feeling people's
24:14 and saying that this is your traits psychological and you'll have to choose this
24:20 the correct way of doing it. the structure based on the cellular level
24:26 because the packing of the styles and of the structure is different. That
24:30 that those different structures serve different Structure and function are interconnected. You
24:38 the structure, change the function to the function. You can change the
24:42 also. Mhm. So now later have the powerful microscopes that get developed
24:53 we have light microscopes standard. Good microscopes can resolve up 0.1 micro meter
25:02 with light microscope and give you a good single cell resolution. But if
25:07 want to see it between neurons. just synapses the space between neurons as
25:13 actual physical space between two neurons that talking to each other through the
25:18 it's about 29 km. So light is not gonna cut it in order
25:24 visualize the synapses and for that is special type of microscopes are being usually
25:29 electron microscopes with tissue that you can Using electron microscopes and resolve 0.1
25:38 And if you use light microscope. light microscope will allow you to describe
25:45 quite nicely depict these damn rights for . And what we discovered that is
25:52 in neurons is that neurons have these writes these protrusions that come after amend
25:58 ready shaft if you made this is a branch of the tree and then
26:03 has little branches coming off the sides little leaves hanging off the sides.
26:09 what are these them? Good Dance stands for dumb drive. You
26:13 see some mitochondria here. PsD stands the past synaptic density. And so
26:19 is the Pazin optic side. So drives Azra Monica help postulating the correct
26:24 and a good experience will be receiving information that's what input is coming
26:29 And in order to receive that information the past synaptic density they have high
26:36 receptors that are waiting for the neurotransmitter come from the pre synaptic side shown
26:43 in red. And these red round are filled with neurotransmitters. And so
26:51 is an ax on and this Axiron Jackson to this very expiring and the
26:58 of the neurotransmitter vesicles release of neurotransmitter binding of that neurotransmitter to receptors in
27:05 boston optic density will then cause an and chemical change boston optical and so
27:13 will input and intake all of this from potentially hundreds of thousands of active
27:21 and then expands and process that information the major processing center and decision making
27:27 at the level of the selma an initial segment where the action potential gets
27:33 only if the cell is excited. so these them good explains they come
27:38 in in different shapes and so there's three different types of descriptions here for
27:43 dendritic spines. Study spine, a spine in the mushroom shaped spine,
27:53 ? And these include expands are very . This is how you learn right
27:59 . You're probably building some new leaves your dendritic branches. You're forming,
28:06 send the abscesses, you're learning more , you're strengthening the synopsis as you're
28:12 certain synopsis with certain information, certain of the brain. These are the
28:19 plastic elements in the brain. There's lot more of the dendritic spines and
28:24 synapses that you're born with than you into adulthood. So there is a
28:29 of pruning and dropping the synapses that irrelevant that are inactive and the highest
28:35 of plasticity as we discussed and mentioned the previous classes during the early development
28:41 an early adulthood. And that's because a certain environment that allows for these
28:46 experience to grow to strengthen themselves. , environment, chemical environment, some
28:56 environment, as well as certain other of metabolism that allow for these cells
29:03 for the dendritic spines. And for analysis to be very plastic early
29:07 We also have come focal microscopes that allow us to visualize with fluorescent dyes
29:14 anatomy of neurons and to recreate the anatomy and that is very important because
29:21 want to understand how neurons compute they're they're quite sophisticated. If you
29:28 about an individual neuron that can process to hundreds of thousands of inputs and
29:34 a decision within few milliseconds. That's very complicated and fast processor.
29:42 Now we don't always need a stain visualize the brain cells. And in
29:53 days we have sophisticated microscopes and cameras filters that we can use. And
30:00 this case this is a setup that used quite a bit in the past
30:06 at U. Of H. It's my lab, it has an infrared
30:11 . It has a differential infrared camera . So the slice will be placed
30:18 under this green lives and then you an objective. Through that objective you
30:23 a set of filters course if you through it through just the eyepieces and
30:28 in the brain tissue unless you have stain you won't see much.
30:33 But if you send that signal through mirror system into the infrared camera,
30:38 the back of the microscope that set filters and implement camera will give you
30:45 beautiful images of individual murals and these parameters cells and the addition. Just
30:53 these individual neurons. We actually can a number of very small glass pipettes
30:59 we call micro electrodes and we can patch on or tag on if you
31:05 through these individual neurons and we can war record activity, record activity in
31:11 conditions of productivity and some pathological conditions in the brain tissue or brain cells
31:19 have a pathology, genetic pathology. these are the techniques that now allow
31:27 to visualize individual cells without the stance even record activity from individual cells.
31:34 Holy Grail, as I say uh neuroscience and the Holy Grail I think
31:41 neurology and the Holy Grail of The Holy grail of rehabilitation is the
31:48 to non invasively understand fully the function the brain at a very high resolution
31:55 the single synapses. Can you do now? Can you go into the
32:02 or hospital and say can you scan brain and tell me anything about my
32:08 ? Um I don't really experience doing . You cannot. So you can
32:16 get resolution of networks of active networks active clumps of sales sells non
32:28 This is a pet scan positron emission and images of the brain while its
32:36 different tasks. And you can also noninvasive measurement of brain activity using
32:44 Of course you can use these methods other methods like C. T.
32:48 computer tomography. We'll talk about it and of course the greater detail to
32:53 pathology to visualize tumor growth in the visualize stroke damage and the brain.
33:00 the idea is that you want to activity. You don't want to visualize
33:05 only why you want to visualize activity these changes non invasively and want to
33:12 that early on in case the person developing a certain disorder, in case
33:17 an onset of Parkinson's disease or epilepsy there is a way to understand what
33:21 brain is doing immediately and not only the network level but at a single
33:27 level. That is the challenge for 21st century right now if you look
33:32 these pet scans you will see that at words will activate the exhibit all
33:39 visual cortical area, listening towards veronica . Except of aphasia here, close
33:47 temporal lobe, hearing centers speaking words centers and the frontal cortex close to
33:57 Broca's area, expressive evasion, it's similar area here gets activated when you're
34:03 words. The thinking of words will many different parts of the brain but
34:09 the same ones that we're either looking speaking them or listening to them.
34:16 huh. And uh then I often a question here with You only use
34:24 of your Brian. So you're welcome use 10% of your brand. I
34:29 to use as much of my brain possible and I honestly don't know how
34:33 of my brain. I use. one thing for sure is that if
34:36 brain gets used 100% and you're probably in a couple of excision and that
34:42 not doing so complete full activation of brain that doesn't happen. It's a
34:48 that's nonlinear system that's operating outside the . It has only total 3% of
34:54 total body mass which consumes over 20% your total body energy. Everything you
35:01 and do 20% of it goes to brain. And it's a system that's
35:09 very complex. And even when you to sleep, the brain is not
35:15 . You have a disconnect from the activity. So like I said,
35:20 you're dreaming that you're flying, you're laying in bed and you know,
35:24 and jumping around or jumping off but you're just dreaming it. And
35:32 brain is active in different parts of brain are active in different brain maps
35:38 up. So this underlying structure that talking about, we talked about barrel
35:43 is we talked about exhibit a little and the visual cortex is what it
35:48 , is that these are the brain . So the structure underlying structure side
35:53 tonic structure will now be responsible for these brain maps of activity and brain
36:00 . Because these vast and not stationary activity gets communicated between different parts of
36:05 brain. So you will have this of activity moving from one part of
36:09 brain to another. Interconnected part of brain as it is being demanded in
36:16 lab. Of course we can visualize spines and we can individual visualize individual
36:24 . We want to do that ultimately the cleaning. And I believe that
36:29 is going to get solved by you in this 21st century or uh your
36:37 . But it will be solved this . I think you will be able
36:41 go into clinic In the 22nd And there will be a very complex
36:48 algorithms that will calculate and visualize and if not completely visualize, predict the
36:56 right down to a single level, invasive one. So again, this
37:01 the holy grail and you want to that again from the single molecule all
37:07 way to the network activity and whole of the brain. So these techniques
37:15 patent MRI confirmed that certain functions are out in specific areas of the
37:22 Each function is observed by more than neural pathway. When one pathways damage
37:30 this may compensate, making localization harder see. Very simple example, two
37:36 2 years. If you lose one , you don't lose half of your
37:40 that Children you resemble a peripheral vision one side. So you have that
37:46 a basic level. It's a lot on a complex level where you have
37:50 six layers and the lateral Janica I was showing it and actually two
37:55 each process information from three from one and three from that I his redundancy
38:02 processing. And so when people were some of the cuttings of the brain
38:06 in the 20th century in pigeons and like that, it was hard to
38:12 where exactly the brain function is localized there is redundancy and uh in addition
38:21 motor functions in addition to vision and like that, emotions are also
38:28 And you can evoke emotions by stimulation certain parts of the temporal law.
38:35 also people that suffer from temporal lobe , which means their temporal lobe in
38:40 parts of their temporal lobe get over , their producing this electrical storm doing
38:46 seizure. They're getting crowded with emotional . So they may not have the
38:53 stiffening, the tonic clonic, what call component, the stiffening or the
38:59 and spasms in the muscles, but may just be extremely sad or
39:05 That was the case with the alexander great that had oris from epileptic seizures
39:11 he didn't want to exchange into anything and feeling of bliss that he was
39:15 before, that just also activating a part of the emotional center. So
39:24 reality not just real reality with virtual also affects these brain maps that are
39:31 in the brain. They can have person to immerse themselves in some
39:35 And virtual reality, like these snowmen snowballs at the snowman. And the
39:41 map is different whether you're sitting in reality environment or no virtual reality.
39:49 this brain map you can see is spread out and this orange on the
39:54 here and on the right, It's more concentrated and it's more red
39:59 means there's more concentrated activity and less of the brain within virtual reality as
40:05 as an example here. Uh So uh we have what we call
40:12 operations. We have processing that is cereal or in serious and in parallel
40:19 the brain and serious as retina doesn't what the primary visual cortex does.
40:25 as at each station the sensor For example this process it becomes hierarchically
40:31 complex until we have a full view this visual world around us and that
40:37 formed in the occipital lobe after bypasses several structures. The visual information with
40:43 of life that are hitting our retinas this is in series and in parallel
40:49 you have the left and the right in parallel because the nerve split
40:54 part of it remains on one side one eye and the other girls on
40:58 other side. And many different examples that. Even simplest mental activity requires
41:05 of processes in multiple areas of the . Such processing a bear's introspectively seamless
41:14 that is true. You quite often think about what your hands or legs
41:18 doing or your thoughts are doing while looking or listening at something or on
41:22 phone at the same time and you just comes kind of natural to
41:29 But inside there are all of these maps that get activated and change them
41:35 they're active and they change they also the snap, the connectivity. We
41:39 the synapses change good explains and it's uh right, so medical specialists of
41:47 nervous system, you have a neurologist is a disease of the nervous
41:53 neurologists will be helping people that have disorders, migraine, Apple of Parkinson's
42:02 disease, multiple sclerosis. And they treat you with prescription medications or something
42:11 those lines that if needed, referring another specialist, maybe psychiatrist is mood
42:17 personality disorders. Neurosurgeon is surgery of brain and spinal cord. I always
42:24 it's about 10 year residency to be neurosurgeon. Uh And then you you
42:31 don't do all of the surgeries all the brain and the spinal cord.
42:35 typically specialists in let's say, brain like leo mose, brain stem
42:43 spinal cord surgery, spinal cord, slippage surgeries gets very, very specialized
42:48 very detailed, very complex surgeries to removing a part of the brain or
42:55 a part of the brain, especially anywhere in the spinal cord or the
43:02 it doesn't regenerate. It's not like up that arm and the general surgeons
43:09 and the nerve which is going to back together, spinal cord or the
43:15 tissue won't grow back together, so speak, so it will not
43:20 And that's why this is very very work. And a lot of uh
43:27 go in prior to neuro surgeries unless course they're emergency neurosurgery such as from
43:32 stroke and such neuropathologist studies tissue to changes in tissue statistician. And the
43:44 uses astrology to look at how different look like looks for biomarkers from test
43:52 from a patient to try to correlate that patient underground a neurosurgery. It
44:00 take a sample for example of his of his brain tissue, example of
44:05 cancer tissue to understand what exactly is on and how to maybe better treat
44:11 patient if there is a the return the cancer of that growth. Your
44:19 is either in the european. HD very successful PhD in your pathologists running
44:26 large uh their pathology labs in the levels of analysis is from molecular cellular
44:34 systems. So multiple structures involved multiple involved to behavior studying behavior,
44:44 sleep patterns and so on cognitive So understanding cognitive neuroscience um myself I
44:56 been trained as a classical neurophysiologist, anonymous the neuro pharmacologist. So those
45:04 my uh training aspects that were most little. I spend most of the
45:11 but also I've done quite a bit work in molecular and computational neuroscience but
45:17 mostly are through collaborations. So I poked a lot of neurons in my
45:24 with electrodes and uh studied a lot neuronal activity in neuronal networks. These
45:32 maps and brain waves that we talked and plasticity that we talked about.
45:37 it's a it's a good subject to or fast. There's more traditional neuroscience
45:45 that I'm describing here. There's other that benefit from neuroscience, occupational
45:52 speech pathology, drug rehabilitation, computer , artificial intelligence. Why do you
46:00 computer science artificial indulgence. Because we these things to work like our brains
46:08 they do a lot of things. if you told the phone, you
46:11 up to the phone refuse analogy from years ago and said Alexa also.
46:17 so, you know, my mother law would come and say you're
46:23 you know, But now, you , we have these devices and we
46:27 them to be as close to to processing that we have the processing capability
46:32 we have in the brain learning artificial intelligence, artificial networks, how
46:40 you build a network? It makes . And what do you want to
46:45 with that network? Look at the networks, understand how the brain networks
46:52 that's really important. Then you can electrical networks and things that you will
47:00 need to function in a in a way. And of course, you
47:06 , it's still they still depend on pushing the button or calling on them
47:12 stuff like that so they don't walk . Well some do robots in any
47:21 . But that's the whole point is there is law Euro ethics. If
47:27 inner science and you have a great on background, you end up going
47:31 law school, you can argue some interesting cases can be head injury cases
47:38 work and you know exactly who to on because you took this class and
47:43 took some other classes later and in school, a Somalia exactly what they're
47:49 about when you know, I'm going talk about critical traumatic encephalopathy because we're
47:55 to learn about CTE or chronic traumatic philosophy in this course and you're going
48:01 know about it. So it's a of really great applications. Let me
48:08 this recording for a second
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