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BIOL 4315 Neuroscience Mo Wed 4-5.30pm - NEURO Lecture 02 History of Neuroscience Mo We
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00:02 last lecture, we finished talking about we were trying to determine all of
00:10 different uh functions of nerves. And were different interpretations of what nerves and
00:20 nerve functions are. And so we that in 1780 Luigi Giovanni using electricity
00:33 cause the contraction of frog muscles. I see that stimulating the frog muscle
00:40 stimulating the nerve that's going into the muscle. and in 1780, Luigi
00:47 essentially shows that nerves are like electrical , they are conducting electricity there,
00:59 conductors. And in addition, nerves also producing electricity. And so we
01:08 have as neuroscientists, reliable techniques to activity from single nerves, electrical activity
01:16 the 20th century. So another years transpire before we, instead of
01:26 the nerves and observing the activity, capable of actually recording this activity and
01:32 out that the nerves and neurons and wires, the axons of the nerves
01:40 the information in the form of the potentials. These very fast on the
01:46 and duration and 100 million volts in membrane potentials, electrical potentials that are
01:55 action potentials. And so giovanni and previously thought in fluid mechanical model of
02:05 , cart or in the ventricular localization the brain function by renaissance anatomist.
02:13 vesalius uh that both thought that this and something from the brain like fluids
02:24 gasses were carried by the nerves and Albany now shows that it is electrical
02:31 , electricity that is being conducted by nerves also. Later we find out
02:37 it's not only electricity, but there a chemical release of neurotransmitters. So
02:42 truly electrochemical communication that is taking place the nervous system. The nervous system
02:50 divided the C. N. Into the brain which is cerebral cerebral
02:55 , cerebellum, which is a little often referred to on the back of
03:01 brain. The brain stem the core the brain holding up at the base
03:06 the brain and the spinal cord that all the way through the vertebral column
03:13 sends its spinal nerves, 31 pairs spinal nerves from the neck down all
03:20 way to the lower extremities to the . The major lobes and the cerebral
03:26 that we discussed. Our central frontal that is separated from parietal load by
03:35 sulcus occipital lobe in the back of brain and the temporal lobe Sicilian fisher
03:42 a fissure that separates the temporal lobe the parietal and the frontal lobe
03:49 And this is sarah balham in the of the brain. So we now
03:54 the major divisions and we now know the information into the spinal cord comes
04:01 The pears are the nerves. These pairs of nerves. These 31 pairs
04:07 nerves are comprised of the sensory component comes from the muscles and joints and
04:15 and from the periphery through the peripheral . This sensory component gets carried into
04:24 dorsal part into the back of the cord and so in between each
04:31 you will have a spinal merit that the sensor information into the spinal scored
04:37 once that information is in the spinal , that information, first of all
04:42 through the place called dorsal root It's a collection of the sensory neurons
04:47 dorsal root ganglion cells that they Their cell bodies are so most located
04:53 this ganglion and send an axon into periphery. For some out of sensor
04:59 , touch, the heat, location, appropriate reception where the joints
05:09 muscles located with respect to the body respect to the outside world. That
05:15 information interested the dorsal part and then ventral part, you have motor neurons
05:20 send out their axons. They're they're must live in the spinal cord proper
05:26 they send out their axons and within same nerve bundle and exit out through
05:32 same opening in between the vertebra and motor neurons innovate the muscles and cause
05:39 contraction of the muscles. The so sensory component, the dorsal component is
05:44 sensations and eventual component is the muscles , motor commands to the muscles.
05:54 rest of the 18th 19th and onward are concerned about localization of specific brain
06:02 . So, with this respect we the science of chronology and technologists,
06:09 very much interested in finding out what of the brain are responsible for what
06:16 . So the major for knowledge is the time, franz, joseph
06:21 You had this theory that if you to look at the shape of the
06:25 and you were to measure the size the skull and different indentations and different
06:31 on the skull. That you would be able to look and measure the
06:41 angles in the shape of the And by measuring these different areas on
06:48 skull, you would be able to what innate faculties that person had or
06:53 made it uh that what that seat organ as they're called was responsible for
07:01 faculties. And they said that of if you are born with certain faculty
07:09 you exercise that faculty, then the is soft and it's going to shape
07:16 that area that is responsible for that faculty. Therefore enlarging of crossing some
07:22 of a regular bump on the surf the skull. So they also basically
07:29 that if that organ has exercised that faculty is used more in other
07:34 , than that organ would be just like a muscle when you lift
07:40 than your muscle grows. Uh And course they were wrong. The chronology
07:46 consisted of uh, I don't know to, truth is uh marks here
07:59 the slide when we pause this for second. Again, if you follow
08:10 logic that the smartest brains are the brands criminologist point of view than we
08:20 have to, you know, tilt hats to elephants that have the largest
08:28 in the world. And this theory you can read innate abilities or developed
08:38 by reading the surface of the skull obviously wrong. It's just as wrong
08:47 saying that you can read the book reading its cover just by looking at
08:53 cover and measuring the size of the and things on the cover and that's
08:57 the case. But in phrenology they would use a variety of tools
09:02 record a all sorts of calculations and and angles in order to predict what
09:11 of faculties you had that we're in that were developed based on the shape
09:15 your skull. So they were absolutely about the fact that you can read
09:22 surface of the skull and in the of the skull reflects specific brain functions
09:30 localization of the specific brain functions, where they were right and really push
09:36 field forward in the localization of specific function is by trying to subdivide the
09:42 in many different areas and really starting believe that these different areas in the
09:48 were responsible for specific functions. So of saying that the whole brain is
09:53 for everything, they're saying that there's parts of the brain and this is
09:58 cover from Journal of Criminology and American Journal of 1848 and subsequently it's a
10:08 of function. So damage to certain of the brain that broker, for
10:14 , discovers the damage to this area is now known as Broca's area.
10:18 the frontal lobe, it's one of speech areas that is located near the
10:23 cortex that is obviously necessary in order us to generate motor commands. For
10:29 damage to Broca's area causes a loss function. So the early localization of
10:36 brain function came about from seeing where brain injuries or in general damage to
10:44 otherwise would cause a specific loss of brokers, areas associated with expressive
10:51 which is an ability to express speech to convey thoughts through speech or writing
11:01 damage to another area of the brain the ver nicolas area would result in
11:07 aphasia in this case, learning this is located closer to the temporal lobes
11:12 damaged to vernon kyocera results and inability receive the words to listen to,
11:19 words to understand the words, the forms of asia economic or amnesia,
11:26 the least severe. So just forgetting , people places surveillance, I think
11:31 we all to some extent sufferers not or less and global aphasia. If
11:36 have a more significant damage or extensive to these left hemisphere left the
11:43 if you may speech areas so that learning something important, that speech is
11:48 on the left side and left That speech areas consists of receiving speech
11:55 expressing speech and other areas that in that make a very complex ability for
12:03 to understand and express ourselves through speech and to write which is all interpolated
12:11 with with listening to producing speech as . So if you have extensive damage
12:18 speech areas, you may suffer global , which is the inability to understand
12:24 or read. Baniyas gauges potentially the famous Loss of function example and most
12:33 patient that we know the name of station. We have his picture actually
12:38 have the sculptures in the museum as . And then there's gauge in the
12:43 works in New England that at the they're laying railroads through the mountains and
12:49 need to put explosives to cut through stone and through the mountains. And
12:55 then there's gauge packs up the explosives Expectedly they go off before the time
13:03 this bar metal bar that he's shown in the picture penetrates from underneath his
13:11 , takes out his left eye and out through the top of the
13:16 leaving this massive indentation and his although they rebuild it, put it
13:23 and massive damage to the frontal area the brain. And at this
13:28 you ask yourself a question, a that suffered such a massive traumatic brain
13:34 , they must have so many different of functions. In reality he can
13:40 see, you just cannot see with left eye, he can hear,
13:44 can talk, you can walk, can do pretty much everything like in
13:48 picture he looks like a normal man and I just holding a stick.
13:54 as a consequence to this injury, gauge loses the ability to control his
14:00 and also loses his executive function. we realized that the emotions control of
14:09 control and aggression and executive functions and of memory are located in these frontal
14:16 and prefrontal lobe circuits. So there's reconstruction right here of the skull.
14:21 is an actual picture of bananas It's still in the, in the
14:26 century. We are understanding localization of brain functions following an injury and following
14:35 loss of function. And we're realizing different parts of the brain are responsible
14:40 different functions and the same isn't part at the time using cortical stimulation.
14:46 you can stimulate the motor cortex on left and you can observe the movement
14:51 the hand on the right and you stimulate an emotional area and you can
14:56 a subject exhibit a different emotion. this is ongoing also in trying to
15:02 mapped out through the loss of function electrical stimulation and through the anatomical
15:09 really trying to understand the different different parts of the brain and their
15:14 function, Charles. Darwin is credited his observations on the Galapagos islands that
15:21 talked about. The theory of evolution evolution of behavioral trades. Some are
15:28 and others are distinct and he was that animals have lived in close proximity
15:33 they had different environments, had different features. And so we discussed that
15:38 anatomical features such as beaks and birds such as uh ah some sort of
15:45 coloring on the fish or the structure their offense might be different depending on
15:51 local island environment. He did most his studies off the coast of Ecuador
15:56 the Galapagos islands. And we now of course that animals like rodents that
16:02 around and smell around. First of , they have these massive uh factory
16:07 so their olfactory evolves relatively to the of the rest of their brain are
16:12 because that's what this animal is concerned . The sniffing around. If you
16:16 at our factory evolved in the non primates monkey, the impact our balls
16:21 rather than the small compared to the of the size of the brain.
16:26 of course the most important area for rodents for survival is in somatic sensory
16:33 is to smell. That olfactory walls Samantha sensor wall is to whisk around
16:39 and touch different things with whiskers and determine if it's something that is going
16:44 be food. It is something that going to be a maid in order
16:50 survive a different environment. And so you looked in the somatosensory cortex of
16:57 the cortex is dedicated a big part this cortex is completely dedicated to the
17:03 pattern this animal and each one of whiskers has an area called the barrel
17:09 . Each one of these dots actually a single whisker. There's a map
17:14 a single whisker. Each whisker as rows of whiskers as you have on
17:19 snout here you have those rows of and each barrel represents a single
17:25 So these are what we call cortical . There's a cortical map and there's
17:29 cortical map of structure. Then there's course on top of that structural map
17:34 functional maps of activity. So the is the way the neurons are
17:39 And you have certain architecture that represents peripheral in this case this architecture in
17:44 matter sensory cortex represents the periphery. whisker pad. It's a map of
17:48 whisker patterns of vortex and the activity would be a map of activity that
17:53 on top of the structure the neuronal circuit that represents these barriers,
17:58 and inter barrel communication and the communication the smaller parts of somatosensory cortex with
18:06 parts of the brain. In in in non human primates or factory balls
18:12 we started small and non human primates in humans there's a very sophisticated visual
18:19 . So this image doesn't really reveal . But instead of whisking around and
18:27 around we find food and we find by observing the world very highly visually
18:37 tuned animals And so you will have very sophisticated map of the visual
18:42 And as we study the visual you'll understand how the whole anatomy from
18:47 eye all the way to the back the primary visual cortex. In the
18:51 lobe form the primal sketch of this wall that you're looking at right
18:58 In 19 century, uh we discussed microscopes for quality. The first microscopes
19:08 of resolving individual cells became available in and 19th century. And so in
19:14 century you have several things that are technologically. You have the development of
19:19 silver nitrate stains and silver re agents these silver nitrate stains and re agents
19:26 being used for photography. We're taking in biology. There is a raging
19:33 . Uh particular theory which held the system is a serious issue.
19:38 the network of living material with multiple , they didn't know how many,
19:44 they knew it was thousands, hundreds millions of billions. Now we know
19:48 billions of nucleons and one side of continuity from one place in the network
19:53 another neuron doctrine and turn argued that biological dishes are composed of discrete cells
20:04 neurons in the brain. Each with one nucleus surrounded by south number.
20:11 problem is that even when you develop microscope that had enough resolution to observe
20:18 neurons and recall that the diameter of single neurons. 10 nm. I'm
20:25 , 10 μm. They don't this will an exam and I'm just kidding.
20:31 won't be like it might be an , but it's 10 micrometers is the
20:36 of a typical girl kind of. the problem is that even if you
20:43 that resolution to see that single the brain presents its own problems,
20:49 rather translucent. And even if you it like a piece of bread loaf
20:55 slices and try to look through those with a light like a really strong
21:01 , It's relatively translucent so you don't much. So that's why we always
21:06 that the brain the gain and the is mainly in the state. The
21:13 and the brain is mainly a If you have a stain you can
21:17 to understand the structure of the It's a little bit of paraphrasing of
21:23 famous phrase rain and spain is mostly the plane on the left, you
21:32 Amelia Goldie in the middle of Ramona and on the right to have Charles
21:39 . And so these three giants and put together an understanding of sells the
21:48 of a Golgi stain, which is silver nitrate based stain. The interesting
21:53 about Golgi stain is only a fraction neurons picks up the stain once a
21:58 percentages. But when neurons pick up Golgi stain, they reveal their exact
22:04 morphology. All of their processes, de memorized their axons, their
22:10 Ramon alcohol used the stand to produce beautiful drawings. He was a student
22:15 chameleon apology and Charles. Sherington discussed of very specialized locations and so what
22:26 gold you believed was ridiculous theory. thought that it was ridiculous theory.
22:34 was since Ishi um the brain was interconnect then call inside the plasma
22:43 And Ramona alcohol instead argued for neuron train or south theory. And he
22:49 , while he drew these drawings, is harmonica halls drawing, he
22:54 you know, I think that these brown they look like antennas. So
23:00 are actually dendrites and dendritic uh These are applicable. Done right.
23:07 these are basil done rights and This is the soma over neuro.
23:11 so he drew these arrows and he that I think that these are sort
23:15 like antennas and neurons and this is inputs are going to be coming in
23:19 in dendrites and soma. And he that selma will then somehow process the
23:24 because it had the nucleus and then information would get sent through these black
23:31 which are axles. And that there a directionality. It's a theory of
23:38 polarization that the signal comes in one and then out of the cell travels
23:43 another direction of travels along these black . And these axons will then form
23:50 onto the adjacent neuron. This is from his drawings and decides that.
23:54 said, you know what these connections not just set in stone, that
24:00 connections are plastic, that they're So he proposed that the synaptic connectivity
24:06 neurons here can change, can it can weaken, it can grow
24:10 it can go away very, very thinking, essentially coming up with the
24:18 of neuronal plasticity that the connections are . And this neuronal plasticity is a
24:24 that underlies really on a cellular level we now understand and think of as
24:30 and memory and Charles. Sherington is person that really hums in and starts
24:36 and coining this term of the synapse what is happening in the synapse in
24:41 very detailed way. These are some the beautiful drawings by ra Monica Hall
24:46 Monica Hall and cornelia Gold. You the Nobel prize together in 1906,
24:52 they remain rivals till the end of concerns. Articulate theory in your own
24:56 trains a fascinating story. It's a in life that you don't always have
25:01 agree with your superior. You can visionary as a student, actually accept
25:08 prize together and not even agree on same subject matter, but both together
25:13 the theory the field the technology and of these neurons and circuits in the
25:22 forward well beyond their time. Another that's very important is the missile
25:29 The missile stain is different. Missile stains all off the neurons from all
25:35 the glia. So this is France here and he invented this stain and
25:40 different. So in this cell stain blue dots, individual blue dots that
25:46 seeing. They represent individual sounds. as you can see that it stains
25:52 of the cells. And what does mean? This blue line, This
25:57 blue line that indicates that there is very high density of neurons of neurons
26:03 south located in this layer here. this is a structure called the
26:08 It's very important for semantic memory and also involved in emotional information processing.
26:15 so you can see that this very band is there's very high density of
26:20 were in this band. This very density of salsa and it sort of
26:24 less evidence with space. You look here. This is a structure called
26:29 journey regulate nucleus of the thalamus which will know very well once we study
26:34 visual system and an L. M. You see that this is
26:40 layers. So what missile stain is good for is staining the selma's.
26:47 not really good for revealing all of processes and because it stains all of
26:52 south. So you can stay in and distinguish between glia and neurons roughly
26:58 on their uh so no morphology but a really great tool to get the
27:06 site of architecture or architectural view of densities and the positioning and the angles
27:14 these cells create in different brain structures the brain. And so Providian broad
27:20 is a scientist abuses missile stain and is an example of this missile stain
27:26 slices human brain precisely and stains different of the brain. And to this
27:32 , If you tell them neuroscientists area , we all know it's primary visual
27:36 . So he essentially what he you used missile stain to build this
27:42 sight of architecture, how we sell at what densities and what orientations around
27:50 parts of the brain. So he now in the turn of the 20th
27:56 , is really pinpointing the precise cellular of the brain, not just what
28:02 parts of the brain areas are responsible , but the cellular anatomy. And
28:07 saying that if you look at the anatomy, if you look at certain
28:11 of these neurons and the densities that area is actually anatomical different 39 from
28:17 40 and because it is anatomically it is also functionally different. So
28:24 basically describes the sight of architecture or architect tonic methods in other words of
28:31 functional areas and determined by observing variations the structure of the cells. In
28:36 words, the underlying structure. The in the structure also determines in different
28:43 . Currently we have standard light microscopes can resolve 0.1 micrometers. As I
28:50 , individual neurons 10 micrometers in diameter like Michael. Still getting resolved.
28:56 Micro m in diameter. And the between neurons is 20 nanometers. So
29:02 synapse or synaptic collapse. The synaptic between individual neurons is 20 nanometers.
29:08 standard light microscope still cannot see the and cannot individual synapse cannot visualize individual
29:17 . So for that we have electron that have a resolution of 0.1
29:23 And when we use electron microscopes you can observe individual dendritic spines. So
29:32 we visualize that then drives have these dendritic spines and dendritic spines.
29:39 D. N. Stands for done This is a matter of congress but
29:42 a psD stands for possum athlete This is a dendrite here. This
29:48 psD of another. Downright and be is another psD of another. Done
29:53 and see And these are all dendritic . So those antennas that receive information
30:00 dendrites are actually the critic spines. those intrinsic spines subjects supposed to in
30:07 axons that project onto them as you see in red inside the axonal
30:13 You have these round red dots. are vesicles. And those vesicles will
30:20 neurotransmitters. And those neurotransmitters will bind the plasma member on the one
30:26 Get released into this 20 nanometer space the south and then bind to the
30:33 catholic densities the receptors and great exponents the pasta. Mathematical fact. And
30:39 you have these spines that come in shapes. Study spine. Then spine
30:44 trade spine. And these spines are important. Normal development, normal densities
30:50 plasticity along these spines indicates normal But if you have these functions and
30:57 it would expand development if you have and densities or localization of these plants
31:05 the dendrite that can actually lead and is. And one of the biological
31:11 of potential mental recommendation, developmental mental . And these days we have very
31:20 microscopes we have from local microscopes, microscopes that allow us in the modern
31:26 mira science to visualize single synapses, damn rights, even single molecules,
31:32 vesicles, no doubt even single molecules as protein receptor channels. In addition
31:39 modern neuroscience, we have a technique called infrared imaging or differential infrared
31:47 In this situation, you place a slice of the brain, you make
31:52 slice that's about 300 micro meters that's about two centimeters across. With
31:57 300 micrometers thick slice and you can the light through it and you can
32:03 use an infrared camera. So the goes into the objective. You can
32:08 it with the eyes if you shouldn't . It's typically cannot see in infrared
32:13 lights. So you pass that signal the infrared camera through a set of
32:18 croelick nerves. And you can now staining cells can visualize these nerves and
32:25 of the time when you report activity vitro or in a dish experimentally that
32:31 or electrical activity is reported through micro . So you would have micro electrodes
32:36 penetrate into individual neurons or the report from outside of the collections of these
32:45 , uh networks of neurons and can different neurons and different tissues. And
32:51 technique of reporting electrically from neurons is important. Experimental technique, of
32:57 And you're typically doing a rodent brain slices and these slices are kept
33:04 because they're being supplies and oxygen and spinal fluid. So they're being fooled
33:09 if they're still sitting inside the brain a whole breathing walking animal that supplies
33:14 with oxygen and basit and cerebral spinal . The current view and understanding of
33:20 science jumps all the way from a molecule from these single dendritic spines and
33:27 and processes from single neurons that we activity even in single molecules, as
33:34 as I said, and all of very high resolution single molecule that would
33:41 . Find your own understanding is experimental , most of them are in vitro
33:46 . It's still very difficult to perform vivo. The whole animal recordings with
33:52 the micro electrodes and and single cells lot of times with purchase wholesale electric
34:00 . It's also very difficult to perform vivo imaging even in animals of the
34:09 neurons and the processes that might be but beyond just imaging the anatomy and
34:17 the anatomy. We as neuroscientists are much interested in imaging the activity of
34:23 neurons and networks. And so in lab and in vitro and in some
34:28 models in vivo, we can visualize synopsis and single neuron activity when it
34:33 to imaging the brain noninvasive length and what the brain is doing different
34:41 We have to use noninvasive functional imaging . One of such techniques is positive
34:49 emission tomography or pet scan imaging. if you look them in this
34:56 of course you can study the brain pet scan to understand its basic
35:02 Most of the time people get either cancer, what is called FmRI,
35:06 functional magnetic resonance imaging because they are problems in the brain, but in
35:14 case and in clinical situations that are on the mesa, meaning that you
35:20 have to open the brain and slice the brain to see activity in the
35:24 . The whole point in the non techniques is that you want to observe
35:29 in the brain by placing your whole , the whole living brain and living
35:36 without hurting them through usually a coil primary coil for pet scan club and
35:41 neurons that are active neurons that are , beginning to form oxygen. They're
35:46 want glucose because they consume glucose and gonna ask for blood to deliver the
35:52 and glucose to the neurons that are . And so when you look at
35:56 maps here, those are activity Those represent these hotspots and rep represent
36:03 networks. And when you're looking at words you will see that the exhibit
36:07 load is activated, listening to it's more of the vernick Asus area
36:12 in the temporal of speaking of the will have a Broca's area of the
36:18 motor protests activated. And then when thinking of the words, you can
36:23 that many different parts of the brain engaged but they're also different from the
36:27 that were either looking, listening or of. So you can engage different
36:35 of the brain and different networks will the oxygen and the nutrients. And
36:40 the active cells will swell and by all of this additional nutrients and turning
36:50 faster metabolism, we can actually identify maps maps of activity not just
36:59 not just underlying structure, but also the brain is active, but when
37:05 do that, of course we cannot it in a single solar. So
37:09 , when you're talking about noninvasive clinical imaging, you're talking about hundreds of
37:15 of neurons, sometimes even more productivity larger networks that involved potentially millions of
37:22 being activated at the same time, 21st century, I believe we'll see
37:27 ability to non invasively track activity and synopses single dendritic spines, single dendrite
37:35 computer activity overall and larger broader networks the cortex and also support. But
37:42 come back and we'll talk some more the functional imaging techniques such as had
37:48 arrive show the brain in action, certain functions are carried out in specific
37:55 of the brain. So this is bottom understanding without stimulating the brain without
38:01 damage to the brain and the loss function. Let's just observe the brain
38:06 . Each function is observed by more one year old. Popular for example
38:10 have two eyes so you don't lose , one vision, finance cage,
38:14 still see with one eye. So more than one you're a pocket
38:18 your apocalypse damaged, others may making organization harder to see. So
38:23 there is a plasticity in the brain reshape itself following a trauma if you
38:29 one sense another sense can take over of the brain and become more sensitive
38:35 perceiving the outside world, emotions are localized. So you can evoke emotions
38:41 micro stimulation of the brain and the lobe areas and parts of the brain
38:48 is called limbic system or abnormal And very strong emotions can come
38:55 And people that have epilepsy and experiencing and that epilepsy is located centralized in
39:01 temporal lobes that are tied to central. So abnormal brain activity can
39:08 internally abnormal emotions as well. Now know, imaging studies reveal the different
39:15 are called them elementary operations. They're in serious and in parallel and serious
39:21 . That information that comes from the world and the periphery. The eyes
39:25 process visual information, but it will have a understanding of the visual field
39:31 view until that information passes through the and gives them to the primary visual
39:37 that are basically dementor and visual field , perception of that field of view
39:44 formed. So this is in serious serious, hierarchically more complex and in
39:50 while you have in parallel to pathways the left and the right eye.
39:53 that's just an example of the visual , even the simplest mounting activity requires
39:59 of processes in multiple areas of the . Such processing appears introspectively seamless.
40:06 you know that thinking of the words activate so many different parts of the
40:11 ? Uh did you know that you only use 10% of the brain.
40:14 , that's not true. You're using of the brain. You are experiencing
40:20 grand mal epileptic seizure and you're probably the emergency room if you're using zero
40:26 some of the brain, that's something brain bad. Maybe in reality the
40:33 usage, the amount that it really on the task, The number of
40:37 , the divided attention across different sensory that will involve smaller or larger
40:45 5 10 2050 and 35, 65% the brain. It just all very
40:52 depends. Now the brain maps are interesting because we as humans can also
40:58 our brain maps just immersing ourselves in reality. So this is the brain
41:03 of an individual that is not in reality world. And then all of
41:09 sudden that individual starts observing and gets in visual reality world. And you
41:14 see that the brain map changes. get ready as the metaverse and all
41:22 these augmented reality experiences, virtual reality are entering into our everyday life metaverse
41:31 universe, better vacations. Uh, maps are going to react differently,
41:38 themselves differently and maybe lend themselves to forms of plasticity, ultimately evolving their
41:47 to adopt to anything that happens around to survive and to keep up with
41:54 developments. Let's discuss a little bit specialists of the nervous system that you
41:59 hear about. When you talk about and neurological science, the neural neurologists
42:06 disease of the nervous system. You a specialty neurologist, so you can
42:10 a neurologist that is just epileptic You just studies epilepsy, you can
42:14 a neurologist that is a motor disease . He will be addressing several
42:21 Maybe it's Parkinson's disease. Huntington's and of course medical doctors, psychiatrists are
42:27 these, their mood and personality So they're more concerned with mental
42:33 more concerned with diseases like schizophrenia bipolar , Neurosurgeons and these probably 10 year
42:42 are responsible for the surgeries of the and the spinal cord. Uh And
42:48 is obviously the surgeries are done if have injury if you have trauma you
42:52 cancer or if you have abnormal activity in the cases of epilepsy that is
42:58 generated and affecting other parts of the whereby you will have a brain surgery
43:03 resection of the brain piece neuropathologist which be M. D. Or PhD
43:09 tissue to identify changes in this case , pathology in the brain tissue,
43:16 off the spinal cord, the nerves course there's pathology labs that will study
43:25 and liver cells. All sorts of with neuropathologist and neuropathology labs can be
43:32 have run but in these or phds on the changes in the neural
43:40 experimental neuroscientists, that's what I Most of the neuro pharmacologists, neuron
43:46 and neuro physiologist as the as the subject matter as well as molecular
43:53 understanding and background and computational neuroscience. you can be a neuroscientist and never
44:00 a bench but be a great neuroscientist computing, understanding, working with experimentalists
44:07 predicting mathematically different mechanisms of action or of neurons of the brain membranes and
44:13 on and levels of analysis from molecular molecule cellular single cell circuits and systems
44:24 observing behavior of the animals as well cognition and cognitive analysis and cognitive neuroscience
44:31 is the closest to psychology and philosophy would say rather than biology itself.
44:37 many different ways and many different reasons areas in which this knowledge that you're
44:44 here this semester of neuroscience will come very useful for you as you choose
44:49 future careers. There is more traditional science careers that are described to the
44:56 techniques such as extra M. I. C. T.
44:59 M. R. I. And scans. They will be done by
45:02 radiologist that will know exactly the anatomy the brain by heart just like the
45:09 of the shopping mall with all of little crevices and every single door and
45:15 which is analogy basically of knowing precisely of the circus and all of the
45:20 of the brain which is six years years and years to master. Okay
45:25 you can look at neuroscience nurse who for patients with neurological disorders, assist
45:31 neuroscience related healthcare professionals. Type of measures perceptual abilities. So how do
45:37 understand perceptual abilities without understanding basic electron neuro diagnostic technician records electrical activity
45:49 the brain, Eeg evoked potential also cord. So it's a technician level
45:54 you have to understand what E. . Is electrons and follow ground and
45:58 will when we talk about epilepsy and and of course audiology. Other careers
46:06 benefit from neuroscience perspective, audiology. is ideology is the study of
46:12 Are you going to benefit an Yes because you're gonna know the hearing
46:16 dentistry you're gonna have to know cranial , veterinary pharmacists, nora pharmacology,
46:23 of these things artificial intelligence. Machine computer science is very important and predicting
46:31 how this very complex, most complex operate, which is brain surface and
46:36 to make the tools and machines and . The computers operate using similar rules
46:45 learning memory, connectivity and operations to the same level of complexity and even
46:53 and decision making that we, as can perform, machines may and maybe
47:00 the near future as we really crack and understand from single cell all the
47:05 to the whole holistic understanding of brain and not just activity, but also
47:12 , which underlies this activity. So end here. This concludes our lecture
47:18 thank you very much for being
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