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00:08 I hope everybody had a good had a very busy weekend. I

00:13 to a conference. Usually conferences are where scientists go where we get to

00:19 with colleagues and rejuvenate ourselves and revive . And so while this is normally

00:25 case, I came back and I'm exhausted, I'm just like ready to

00:29 up in a ball and today, we're gonna do is a little

00:34 As I went over at this I'm like, man, this is

00:36 the worst lecture ever. Not because subject matter is hard or anything like

00:40 , it's just that it doesn't seem there's any like central theme to the

00:44 and it's much easier to understand something there's a central theme that you can

00:48 ok? Today I learned this. like today is like today I learned

00:51 bunch of stuff. And so what gonna do is we're going to first

00:55 at glial cells, we're gonna look reflex arcs, we're gonna look at

00:58 the brain organizes itself during development, we're gonna jump over after the reflex

01:04 and we're gonna look at the organization the spinal cord, so it's just

01:07 of like going all these different All right. So if you find

01:11 like, you know, going south they're like, I'm not paying

01:16 just, you know, ask a , anything like whatever, whatever,

01:22 to kind of get yourself woken So, um what I'd like to

01:25 is I'd like to start here with glial cells. So the last thing

01:28 talked about on thursday before last was mentioned specifically the types of neurons that

01:35 found in the nervous system, they're the only type of neuron but the

01:39 one, the pyramid cell. And we kind of grade them out here

01:42 that we can focus here on these cells. Alright now the supporting

01:48 there's a variety of them alright, there's specifically six that we're going to

01:53 at, there's gonna be four in central nervous system to that are found

01:57 the peripheral nervous system. Alright. much smaller and they don't play role

02:02 in signal, sending signals in the system. They are literally just a

02:07 self, the term you'll see often you'll see, glial cell glial literally

02:12 glue and so they're like the glue , they, you know when the

02:16 first discovered these, you know, like well it kind of holds everything

02:20 so they're the glue cells. Uh other word you'll see is neuro

02:24 which if you want to read you could probably go in neuro glia

02:26 that's how our brains work. But pronounced neuro glia all right, and

02:32 what I'd like to do is just of walk through these things um and

02:37 going to kind of break down um look at each of the the only

02:41 we don't really talk about is the cell uh and I'm just gonna mention

02:45 the Schwann cell is akin or like astro site in the peripheral nervous

02:51 Alright. And that's as far as ever need to know for the

02:54 So because we don't know a lot it, they're there, they've kind

02:57 entered into modern textbooks over the last years, even though they've been studied

03:03 much much longer. Typically if information its way into a textbook, it's

03:07 20 years old. So it's as as you are. Alright,

03:11 so these are much much smaller. are capable of dividing. So they

03:15 my topic in nature. Uh It matter which one you are. Uh

03:20 I mentioned, they don't transmit nerve . They typically outnumber neurons 10-1.

03:26 way I like to think about It's like a football team for

03:28 You don't like football just sorry, it's an easy analogy. How many

03:34 are on the side of the football ? Think about this for a

03:39 Anyone. No one here knows. . Thank you. That's what I

03:45 to hear, Yell out at me you're wrong. I'm not going to

03:48 idiot. I'm going to just say . That's not right. Try

03:51 Alright. 11. Alright, so is a wonderful number. Who is

03:55 more who do we claim? I'm use that word claim is the most

04:00 player on the football team, All right. So, you

04:05 everyone talks quarterback quarterback quarterback quarterback, ? It's like the quarterback is the

04:09 . V. P. The quarterback the one that scored the touchdown even

04:12 all he did was throw a Right? The quarterback. We've got

04:15 defend the quarterback. The quarterback looks because of the other 10 players on

04:20 team. And look at that What we see there, Who is

04:24 most important player in the nervous neural cells or neurons, Right?

04:31 makes the neuron looks so good? the other cells, alright, these

04:35 glia. So they're almost a 10-1 . They make up half the mass

04:39 the brain, right? And they half the volume of the nervous

04:44 So there are lots of them. small and they're important. But we

04:48 them because they're not sexy. All . So we're gonna we're gonna show

04:54 why they're kind of important here. right. So I mentioned there are

04:58 types for in the central nervous We have the epidermal cells. We

05:00 talked about them a little bit. We have the alexander sites. We've

05:04 talked about them a little bit. have astro sites and then we have

05:08 glia. Again, one of those when you look at and go to

05:11 glia, but because we have to things sound fancy shmancy, we'll give

05:16 some weird accident, call it micro . Alright. And then out in

05:19 peripheral nervous system we have satellite Like I said, we're going to

05:23 of ignore them and then the other the Schwann cell. The other name

05:26 the Schwann cells called the neural Alright. And typically what I try

05:30 do in an exam and I'll give both names. So you're not sitting

05:33 going whatever. But Schwann cell has his the historical name and again over

05:37 last five or six years they're moving from epitomize names or epitomizes nomenclature.

05:43 they renamed it the neural Emma And so you start seeing that more

05:48 in more modern texts, the modern . Alright. So where do we

05:55 all these cells? It doesn't matter you're talking about a neuron. Doesn't

05:57 if you're talking about a glial They all originate as an olive garden

06:03 as an OPC. Alright, so all these different types of cells can

06:09 from an OPC. So it's all intercept progenitor cell. Now when you

06:13 all the good in your sight So the main thing you should think

06:15 it makes all the good in her and or the glial cells and that's

06:18 fine. But apparently evidence suggests that gives rise to neurons as well as

06:24 type of glial cells. All So these are all throughout the nervous

06:29 . And what they'll do is that signaled to migrate and move to where

06:35 need to go. And what you're see is that they have around them

06:39 areas along their their dender sides called cones. And the growth cone is

06:45 something that is detecting the environment around . Looking for chemical signals that drive

06:52 of that dangerous that dendrite in that of where that signal is coming

06:57 All right. And so when there's that occurs, the surrounding tissue says

07:02 been damaged. We're not gonna talk what that signal is or why it

07:05 . But that's your body talks to in that way. And basically sends

07:09 these chemical signals says damage has occurred . We need tissue to replace the

07:15 tissue. And so that would be chemical signal. And it stimulates these

07:20 of cells to differentiate and migrate into areas and the mature and fill up

07:25 areas as mature. All good inter . So what did you all

07:32 The underside looks like? Well, talked about this is the cell at

07:37 in the central nervous system that is for my elimination. So you can

07:40 out here here's the cell body or soma. And then what it does

07:44 all these extensions off it. This why it's called the olive Gom.

07:48 danger site. Many extensions. And these extensions do is they go and

07:52 wrap around and they create that biotin for the neuron around which is

07:59 They can have lots of these dender coming off these these myelin nations.

08:05 so here's an example, can modulate to 50 axons. Is that an

08:10 number? Just answers lots. Their job is really that insulation created

08:19 Myelin sheath, what they do is interesting. So not only do they

08:24 up the transmission by grading those nodes ranveer and those mountains sheets between

08:30 they inhibit the ability of a neuron regenerate itself. Right? So when

08:36 occurs that neuron can't regenerate because you all good inter sites already there.

08:41 right. Produced a whole bunch of peptides that help control neuronal function.

08:48 remember what we said? The sexy in the nervous system is done by

08:51 neuron. What does the neuron It sends signals. Alright. And

08:55 kind of ignore. What do the cells do? Except for like this

09:00 20 minutes. And so one of things that it does is it helps

09:03 neuron perform its function by sending proper to allow it to do what it

09:10 . All right. And when we about it, it's like oh well

09:12 just the Myelin sheath. So it up transmission. Alright. That's how

09:17 learned. No religious site acts just the elegant underside except in the

09:25 N. S. And its organization is very different. So if I

09:29 back here to the elegant underside. our cell body. Here are those

09:34 . And that's where you get these own sheets here. The individual cell

09:38 around multiple times. So that each these my own sheets represents one Schwann

09:44 or neuron homicide. All right. they're similar to the elegant inter

09:49 They form those violence sheets and they're for the regeneration of nervous tissue.

09:56 because these are the peripheral nervous you can kind of see perhaps why

10:00 be important. I'm not sure if actually give the lecture on damaged

10:04 I think I figured that out. I may talk about it later,

10:07 let's say I have a nerve fiber a neuron traveling from meat over to

10:13 wall. And damage occurs at some in between there. Now, if

10:17 have my own sheets wrapped all the around, I have basically a track

10:22 that neuron to where it needs to . So if damage occurs, what

10:25 do is destroy up to two where attached and I extend the neuron using

10:32 um Myelin sheaths as a guide to me where that neuron needs to

10:37 It's very slow. It's painstakingly Um but it is a way that

10:42 can regenerate neurons in the peripheral nervous . Keyword in the periphery or peripheral

10:47 system. Although gender sites prevents Ask your sights, Why are we

10:58 Master sites? Because they're discovered in play baseball. No 1's got like

11:07 smiles out of that. Okay, ? Why do we call them

11:15 do you think shaped like a Right. They are the most abundant

11:24 cell. When you think of glial nine times out of 10 you're thinking

11:27 these they're star shaped and again, got to imagine here you are.

11:32 neuroscientists. The only thing you have to at this point is a basic

11:37 . You've got this cut of You look in there, you see

11:40 cells stained and it has this weird shape. So you call them the

11:44 cells. That's the only reason that named that. Alright. So,

11:48 really important though. Alright. Much the work of the nervous system is

11:54 upon the presence of the astro And this is kind of trying to

11:57 you a little bit of these. right. So one of the things

12:01 do is they provide the physical space the for the neurons. In other

12:05 , they're the scaffolding on which the tissue is built. So, you

12:10 imagine I'm holding a neuron over I'm holding a neuron over here.

12:14 keeping these two neurons from touching each . I'm making sure these two neurons

12:18 touch each other. All that stuff being accomplished by the astrocytes.

12:23 they established the physical structure of I the brain, but just so the

12:27 system should be fine. Alright. control the chemical environment. All

12:33 because they're the ones that make up part of the blood brain barrier because

12:37 are found at the synapse because they're with these neurons and holding them in

12:44 the way that neurons get the fuel need, and the chemicals they need

12:48 primarily directed by the astrocytes. They stormed glycogen and they're capable of

12:56 . Icis meaning they can release glucose at the the when neurons need

13:03 Alright, Really? What they do they don't the big lie that we've

13:08 everybody since the dawn of time is is the primary sugar of the

13:12 It's not what they do is you glucose and you cut it in half

13:15 you end up with three or 23 sugars. That's lactate. Alright.

13:21 what the brain wants. And so not glucose. It's the half

13:26 And so it provides those to the to provide the fuel. So,

13:30 neurons don't get the fuel that they directly from the blood. They get

13:34 from the neuron, Or sorry, the astro sites that are regulating what

13:38 in and out of the brain Alright. They also control the honest

13:44 We talked about how messing with the can be such a big deal to

13:49 tissue. Well, the astrocytes are responsible for ensuring that the surrounding environment

13:55 the environment that it wants for the . So, we talked about playing

14:01 role in exchange. It's a blood barrier, right? It actually plays

14:06 role in repairing damaged nerves tissues. , it can act in an immunological

14:13 . That's not its primary function, it plays a role in that.

14:16 right. It can serve as scar . So when damage comes along and

14:20 destroyed cells, you're gonna end up this big giant gaping hole that needs

14:24 be filled. Astrocytes multiply and fill up the gaping hole and basically

14:29 that mass to fill it up. had a student a couple of years

14:33 saying, and this is the wildest ever heard. Always get great stories

14:36 you guys and came up after class , oh, dr wayne. It

14:39 after this lecture. I got hit the head with an ax when I

14:42 a kid. Right? He showed the scar. I mean, it

14:45 just like, I was like, , Really? So yeah, what

14:49 there? I said that's what happened all that nerve tissue died.

14:54 All the neurons died. Something has fill that space and that scar

15:00 And it was here the astra sites it. All right. So,

15:04 can stimulate the elegant inter sites and them what to do as well.

15:08 , they're kind of boss cells is of the ways you can think about

15:15 . We looked at the dependable cells a little bit when we talked about

15:18 blood brain barrier and they are the that line the internal cavities.

15:22 when you're talking about the ventricles and talking about the uh cerebral aqueduct and

15:27 on, this is the type of that you're finding there. All

15:31 You can see poorly that. And is a fixative issue that their cilia

15:37 their surface. So, you can what they're doing is they're they're producing

15:42 spinal fluid and pushing it along its . That's the purpose of the

15:46 All right. They have a basement and that base membrane is primarily

15:52 And what they do is they create permeable barrier between that cerebral spinal fluid

15:58 and the tissues underlying. So there regulators of what is allowed to pass

16:04 these two areas. And we also about how they made cerebral spinal fluid

16:11 we have the dependable cells in those of cord plexus, right up next

16:16 the capillaries. You can pull materials of the capillaries and make cerebral spinal

16:21 farmers. So, for the longest , micro glia were like the little

16:30 Children that no one cared about. right. And so, what you

16:34 here is like the very very basic our understanding. Go to a couple

16:39 these conferences, you see some people talking about micro ugly and all of

16:43 sudden it's like we could we should give a whole lecture to these

16:47 They're very, very valuable cells. right. They make up about 10

16:51 15% of the cns there primarily sitting doing nothing for most of the

16:56 But when damage comes along or if an insult that somehow finds its way

17:01 the central nervous system. This is you alert them, they are resident

17:05 act like resident macrophages. Now, know you haven't had immunology and we've

17:13 the term before means big eater. what macrophages are as their cells of

17:19 immune system that are responsible for seeking pathogens or damaged tissue, consuming it

17:26 getting rid of it from the side damage. Alright, so that's what

17:30 what a macrophage does. And so can imagine why these things are sitting

17:34 doing nothing most of the time because don't have a lot of damage in

17:38 brain at any given time. All , basically just sit around and

17:42 hey, brain stay alive. Brain , sure, I'll do that.

17:46 when something happens and they're activated now start moving around through the tissue and

17:52 to the specific sites of damage in to repair what has happened. All

17:58 . And so the first thing when repairing something, if you knock down

18:01 building, the first thing you have do is remove the rubble. And

18:04 that's their job is they're removing the so that the repair can actually take

18:10 . Alright, So there the immune cell of the central nervous system.

18:14 , this becomes really, really important valuable to understand because we talked about

18:18 blood brain barrier, right? Blood barrier separates the central nervous system from

18:22 rest of the body. The rest the body has the immune system to

18:26 care of itself. The brain or central nervous system has no immune

18:32 In other words, nothing on the can tell what's going on on the

18:35 and vice versa. So, it's types of cells that play the important

18:41 of immune response. All right. , they can remove damaged materials,

18:46 can recognize infectious infectious agents, They as what are called a pCS androgen

18:51 cells. These are the things that other types of immune cells to the

18:56 that's going on. All right, gonna back up here for a second

18:59 give you a very, very one explanation of immunology, every cell in

19:03 body knows what's going on, What does is it has a little molecule

19:08 itself, and every protein that you , it takes a little copy of

19:13 , or a little piece of it puts it on its surface and says

19:16 system, do you recognize this? if the immune system recognizes it,

19:21 alerts the immune system that something bad happened. So, when you get

19:24 by a virus, a virus uses own machinery, cellular machinery to activate

19:31 immune system, The only way that's happen is if it knows that there's

19:34 infection going on. So every cell constantly presenting self and non self

19:41 If there's non self available self meaning that my body makes non self things

19:45 shouldn't be there. If it's a self the immune system is alerted.

19:50 . And that's what an A. . C. Is. Is every

19:53 in your body is roughly in a androgen presenting cell that there are specific

19:58 in the immune system that are a that are there to alert higher order

20:03 cells. Right? And that's what thing is doing alright. Plays a

20:09 in preventing inflammation within the cns. , inflammation is a bad thing that

20:14 says more. Water goes in creates , damages tissues, creates a cycle

20:20 bad things going on. So the here is we don't want that to

20:24 normally when you get infected, think when you cut yourself you get a

20:27 red area that's inflamed, right, by a mosquito, a bee,

20:33 ? Get exposed to something you're allergic , you get localized inflammation. That

20:41 what it's trying to avoid is localized . So micro glia the easy thing

20:47 think about immune defense cells. It a type of macrophage. Get through

20:53 how do they? This happens very on development. So while you're developing

20:57 don't have a blood brain barrier, don't have a bloodstream. And so

21:00 happens is there? All right, embryology, you start off as a

21:07 cell. You begin dividing dividing dividing differentiate. You end up with three

21:11 layers of cells in the Durham Ectodermal Durham. All right. Those cells

21:16 then destined to go to different parts body to create the skin, nervous

21:20 , so on and so forth. before you actually have a circulatory

21:24 right? You have brain tissue actually formed. It's very early on just

21:28 you have a heart that gets formed before you have a circulatory system.

21:32 that's where it comes from is while being developed. Good thing we don't

21:38 to know that stuff. I'm telling if this is just a little

21:44 if you ever have an opportunity to developmental biology Alright. I encourage you

21:49 do so. All right. Just the sheer amazement of how you exist

21:55 a as a person. The number things that could possibly go wrong on

21:58 daily basis while you're developing is And the very fact that you exist

22:05 beyond miracle. I mean it's just how, I mean the very first

22:10 the class is like this is what on day one. This is what

22:13 on day two. This is what on day three. You do this

22:16 like six weeks and then it's like week six. Like this is what

22:19 during week seven. This is what during week eight. That's that's how

22:25 specific we understand development. So it's really cool to watch or learn

22:33 So most textbooks spend a lot of talking about all these different things here

22:39 I think it's good that our textbook because you can really get lost in

22:42 minutia and basically what it says is , the nervous system is primarily responsible

22:48 receiving and processing information so that your can respond appropriately to these types of

22:55 . That's really what it boils down . Right? So we have sensory

22:58 that are found in the periphery. , this is core to understand the

23:02 system. We have sensory neurons that out in the periphery that take information

23:07 send that information up to the central system which processes and then sends information

23:13 motor pathways to the structures that are to serve as the responsive structures.

23:19 right. So the integration portion is you think about the central nervous

23:25 that's what it's doing. It's taking these bits and pieces and putting it

23:29 . You can take stuff stored in , you can be stuff that you're

23:33 experiencing and you can actually take those things together. Come up with a

23:38 and your body will respond inappropriately All right. And it says,

23:42 do I need to do with I can store it up.

23:45 So for example, I'm seeing this now. I know that I'm gonna

23:49 tested later. I'm gonna put it in memory All right. Or I

23:52 say, for example, hey, experiencing this and I'm being told to

23:56 this now, so I can act it right away. Or I could

24:00 receiving a whole bunch of information and of it is unimportant to me right

24:04 , so I can just flat out it. So your body is processing

24:08 your brain is processing information constantly trying figure out what it needs to do

24:13 it. Alright. And this is we talk about neurons, that's what

24:17 are doing now. The sending part when we're going to stimulate a

24:25 a gland or some other cell. . And typically we're gonna we're gonna

24:29 this down a little bit further a later. But we have motor signals

24:33 can go to muscles like movement, it doesn't mean just muscles for

24:38 You can go to muscles that are muscles that are smooth, write and

24:42 your digestive system what to do, kidneys or whatever. All right.

24:49 other things that it can do. fact that you recognize that you're sitting

24:53 their chairs right now is called self . I think therefore I am

24:59 Got a whole department can talk about with you. But that's that

25:03 General consciousness. The perception of senses fact that you can smell perfumes and

25:10 or smell barbecue. Right and that smells good, Right? Or

25:17 you're walking across the street over here colon, not colon. Yeah,

25:21 colon, right? And you can the sewage coming out of the

25:25 Like that's just smell. There's there's all sorts of senses and we

25:32 that stuff regularly. That's the right? The fact that you can

25:37 language not just english, but some you are bilingual. Some of your

25:42 , you're able to communicate multiple different . That is a function of the

25:46 system is communication. And there's very regions of the brain that play a

25:51 in that we're gonna when we go the brain is like they're that

25:54 right? There is responsible for That region, right? There is

25:57 for speech which are two different reasoning you're capable of making rational

26:05 So for example, you guys can see the garbage can right up

26:08 This is the gross example if you in here and there was trash on

26:11 garbage can sitting on top was a on a plate and it doesn't,

26:16 know, hadn't touched the garbage and were starving. You could rationalize or

26:22 eating that piece of cake. And now you're saying I'm not gonna touch

26:25 because I'm well fed and I could go three days without eating that

26:28 But if you were starving, you reason why you should do that,

26:35 ? We make choices daily. I'm that as a dumb example. But

26:40 mean everything you do, whether you up went to bed what time you

26:43 to bed. Whether you put on , what clothes to put on

26:46 Whether or not to check your messages you came into work or to school

26:51 morning. All that stuff. His memory is another big thing. Taking

26:57 . Not just the stuff that we're about in this class and other classes

27:01 everything and whether or not to store for long term purposes or just get

27:05 of it right? I use the on thursday. I think if you

27:11 about it I say think about your . Can you remember what they look

27:16 that? Very first crush. Does pull does your memory get pulled out

27:21 say this is that person? Or if you walk by somebody who's wearing

27:25 clone or the perfume of that person spark that memory. Right? That's

27:31 integration of internet information coming through. then there's emotion. There might be

27:35 attached to that, right? It's oh I hate that person. I

27:39 that cologne. I hate that Right? Emotion is our responses to

27:49 of these things that our brain is . And so the nervous system has

27:54 these unique functions. And when we through we're just going to kind of

27:57 out the different areas that are doing rather than asking how does it do

28:02 ? All right, there we Now. I hate this slide.

28:08 hate that your book talks about but it's in the book and I'm

28:11 going to point it out really Is that developmentally the brain moves are

28:17 as it moves neurons in very specific , depending upon which stage of development

28:23 in. If you're an embryo uses way after embryonic development, it uses

28:27 second way and why is this Well, it just shows you that

28:32 is organizational stuff that takes place. what we want to point out is

28:36 even though everything is more or less once you're an embryo, once you've

28:40 formed and you move beyond that into functional organism, things still can be

28:47 . Its just there's a different method it uses. Okay. So what

28:52 uses during embryonic development is something called migration. And what radio migration basically

28:58 is. And we looked at this briefly, we said, the brain

29:01 all these different layers of the cortex you're gonna find these cell bodies have

29:05 layers. And so when you're talking radio migration, you'd ignore where the

29:10 are and you move up and down them using um glial cells as the

29:16 to get to where you need to and that's how your brain gets

29:20 Right? So you can imagine multiple in a cake. I'm just gonna

29:24 and I'm going to go up and through those layers to where I need

29:28 be. Alright. And the glial are sending the chemicals signals to tell

29:32 where you need to go. All . In the adult however, we

29:38 move up and down through the Instead you move within the layer.

29:45 . So you've already been established where need to be but if we need

29:48 move neurons around, we're going to back and forth to where we need

29:53 go and make connections across the All right. And so that would

29:57 tan gentil migration and then this is picture. They show you what you're

30:04 . I don't know what the hell is. It looks like some sort

30:06 alien flexing their fore limb. Don't about it. Just think in terms

30:11 layers by going back and forth through layers. Or am I moving within

30:16 layer Now? The reason these neurons move to where they need to go

30:27 to do with this growth cone. they're using a process that is not

30:32 to the central nervous system. It's how cells move around the body

30:37 nowhere to go. So, if have an infection, how does an

30:40 cell know where it needs to Well, it uses this process called

30:44 taxes. Chemo tells you it's chemical is the movement part basically I'm You

30:51 look at and go chemo taxi if want to. It's not But And

30:55 the idea here is there are molecules are being released that can be either

31:00 or repulsive and it drives a neuron where it needs to go. So

31:07 we're looking at in this picture, stupid little green orange cone thing is

31:13 end of a neural, at the of a dendrite, right? And

31:16 dendrite has out here, this would this is all inside the cell,

31:23 ? And so at the edges of , you're gonna have receptors for these

31:27 chemicals. And so, if there a chemical that says come this

31:31 it grows towards where that chemical is from. Kind of like how a

31:35 follows a blood trail. It's following chemical trail to where it needs to

31:40 . But if you have a criminal don't go this way, then it

31:43 withdraw itself. And so you have neurons basically expanding and contracting in different

31:50 and being forced in a particular All right now, there's other types

31:56 chemicals that can produce other responses you cause then drive to branch, for

32:01 , it might alter the sensitivity to cues that it's receiving. So in

32:07 words, oh, I'm normally you're to be excited. But here,

32:10 not going to just be excited, gonna be super excited, that sort

32:14 thing. All right, So neurogenesis dependent upon this chemo tactic response.

32:23 words, I'm dependent upon chemicals to me what to do and what this

32:29 to is this idea that the brain not a static organ. And what

32:37 means in english is the brain that have today. Is not going to

32:41 the brain that you have tomorrow. . It is constantly remodeling itself and

32:47 in such a way so that it better uh connections with the neurons that

32:54 to be connected in order for you remember something or do something or process

33:00 . And I'm gonna ignore the text there. You can read I want

33:03 focus on this little picture that I know where I found but it's a

33:07 good summary of this neuro plastic behavior the brain. So, each of

33:13 circles represents a neuron. All The lines represent the solid lines represent

33:21 connection between two neurons. In other , some sort of synapse. And

33:24 , you can see here this central , right, is synapse, sing

33:30 that neuron, with that neuron, that neuron and with that neuron.

33:33 then you can see that there's a on those neurons and the synapses between

33:37 two neurons. And so we have is we have a neuronal pool.

33:40 what this picture is saying is saying during neurogenesis when we design the brain

33:46 when the brain is being organized. is a relationship of those cells at

33:51 time. All right. So, born when you start licking keys.

33:59 noticed that babies like everything. Put in the mouth. That's how they

34:03 the world, they're tasting everything to out what is food and what is

34:07 food. Right? So, what's on is you can now see here

34:11 have these two neurons that weren't But what we're gonna do is we're

34:15 start making interactions as a result of experience that we're doing All right.

34:22 , in other words, I'm going as a neuron send out dendrites and

34:28 to interact with other cells. And I'm going to test whether or not

34:32 is a connection that needs to be . And so this is going on

34:37 early on. So, you can here we've expanded right, expanded the

34:43 pool. Alright. We've created multiple as we continue to do whatever that

34:50 is. All right, what's going happen is we're going to strengthen certain

34:57 and we're going to lose other And that's what we see here,

35:01 ? We see the strengthening between this of network and up here. We

35:06 that we're losing interactions there. And ultimately what we do is we create

35:13 pattern of interaction between those areas where making those strong interactions and then we

35:18 completely lose those areas where we have interactions. All right now to try

35:26 help you understand this and I don't if this is going to make

35:29 But whenever you remember whenever you are anything, this is what's going

35:33 So let's say you are creating a , right? Let's say you're eight

35:38 old and you're roller skating for the time, I don't know if

35:42 rollerblading, whatever, Alright. And very first time and you're sitting

35:46 you're learning how to do it, , and you're learning how to

35:48 okay, I go slide, slide, slide slide, you're doing

35:52 and you get better and better and until finally become a super speed

35:58 right? So that means now, time you get on the whatever the

36:05 , your brain automatically has the pattern redo what you learn how to

36:12 It doesn't have to relearn the This is what a memory is.

36:16 a pattern of neurons firing within that after it's been created. I can't

36:25 . So it's not just an idea stored in a single cell,

36:30 It's the number of action potentials that firing in between the cells, the

36:34 cells as they communicate in a specific . And there have been some incredible

36:39 that have been done where they've taken , they did this in humans

36:43 but not exactly the same experiment. took rats and they put these Basically

36:49 into their brain and they train them they were to do a figure

36:54 a maze like this, right? in the middle of that Figure

36:59 they had a wheel. So the had to go around the eight,

37:03 to the wheel, run on the a little bit and then they jump

37:05 and then do the other half the eight and do the wheel again and

37:07 just repeat that pattern over and over . And then what they could do

37:11 then they recorded what was going on the brain at the time, in

37:14 of the pattern that was being generated they could actually see when they would

37:19 the rat and throw it in the and say rat time to go run

37:22 thing. That would say okay I'm my maze and would know what to

37:25 . And you could see before the got to the wheel whether or not

37:29 was going to stop and actually run the wheel or if it would make

37:32 mistake and go the wrong direction. you could see the pattern being generated

37:37 the action actually occurred. Now they this similarly in humans, but it

37:43 not that they made him running a . What they did is they made

37:45 watch videos and so it was a that they would watch over and over

37:49 and then they recorded the brain patterns brain waves that were being produced and

37:53 they would interview them like an hour two later and say what was in

37:56 video and they could see the pattern generated in the brain. So when

38:01 was right, it would be matching they did. And if it was

38:04 , you could see where the mismatch . That's kind of cool. So

38:09 is how memories are stored is through pattern or this through pattern.

38:16 the term plasticity means malleable or All right. So, when you

38:22 you're a plastic, that means the is changeable. Alright. Old dogs

38:30 tricks the whole nine yards. We capable. We just don't like

38:36 Don't you hate learning these stuff. . So, what this slide does

38:48 says, all right. So, brain has integration in other words,

38:54 neurons that are found within these Alright. So information itself is going

38:58 be very, very coordinated and it's because the neurons are grouped together in

39:04 specific ways. So that there's interactions those groups. These are called pools

39:09 circuits. We're gonna look at specifically in the next couple of

39:13 And so when we see those it's a functional groups of neurons that

39:18 information and forward it to someplace All right. So, you can

39:22 of a small little tiny mini computers are communicating with each other because they

39:26 very specific things. They can be and they can be distributed. When

39:31 say localized, it means you can at a very specific part of the

39:33 and say all that processing is done . When we say distributed means some

39:38 is done here and then that information sent over here and processed over

39:42 All right. One of the most parts of the brain is the visual

39:47 processing centers. We talked about the cortex being in the occipital lobe and

39:52 100% true. That's called V Alright. V for visual one for

39:57 first area, primary visual visual But there's a V two, there's

40:02 V three. These are the There's a V five and it goes

40:05 the way up at least V 20 I've seen it. And if you

40:09 at where that stuff is localized, goes all the way from the occipital

40:12 , up towards frontal lobe, down the temporal lobes. It is that

40:16 are primarily a visual creature in our is processing video all the time.

40:23 , well not video but visual All right, there's gonna be a

40:28 number of input sources and output In other words, we're not going

40:32 throw everything into a neuronal pool and you to process it. Alright,

40:37 specific information is being processed. It be integrated with other information, but

40:41 not going to take all the information something at the same time. And

40:46 could be either simple or complex. this is going to be looking at

40:49 four basic types of circuits. We ask if it's a simple circuit or

40:52 it's a complex circuit. Alright, . And this is just a simple

40:58 . The more neurons there on a , the greater number of synapses there

41:02 . So, the greater number of , that means there's going to be

41:05 to process information. Alright. That's a function of synaptic delay.

41:14 what we're looking at here is the definition between simple and complex. All

41:20 . This is as basic as we get in a simple circuit. What

41:24 have is we have one cell and cell. One cell is communicating directly

41:28 the other cell. Pretty simple, it? Information flows in one

41:32 It goes from cell a to These are not very common in the

41:38 nervous system. They're comin in the nervous system, not in the central

41:43 . So, great. That means central nervous system must be complex.

41:48 right. And this is an example a complex circuit. So, here

41:52 , we got cell A. We cell B. A. Is communicating

41:55 B. But B is also communicating A. All right. So,

41:59 A stimulates BB stimulates A. Or may tell a not to be

42:04 So, there's a feedback between those cells. And this is very,

42:08 simple because we're just looking at two , most neuronal pools consist of hundreds

42:12 not thousands of cells. So, is basic as it gets Now.

42:22 the context of these circuits, there four basic types of circuits. All

42:28 . So here you can see these are very simple circuits. Why are

42:31 simple circuits? Do we see any in the opposite direction? And

42:37 No. Alright. So what we here is a circuit that is both

42:41 converging circuit and the other one is diverging circuit. The converging circuit is

42:46 over here, you can see we a whole bunch of cells,

42:48 B. And C. All converging on D. Alright, this

42:54 and this cell and this cell are communicating with cell D. To tell

42:59 D what to do. So information being condensed downwards as you're moving through

43:05 pool. Alright, so in a circuit, these are very very common

43:11 of this is salivation, not salvation . Alright, when I salivate,

43:18 gonna be processing multiple pieces of information the same time. I'm getting information

43:24 my visual circuit. I'm getting information the old factory. I'm getting information

43:30 the gustatory. I'm getting information from sensory, the somatic sensory. So

43:36 , taste, smell, vision, those things together are getting to me

43:42 it's like hmm this makes me want salivate right? And you can think

43:49 something that makes you want to I don't know, a freshly baked

43:52 with ice cream on top. You smell it? You see it

43:58 it touches your mouth and melts a bit in your mouth. All

44:02 All of that together. It's just homer Simpson drool. The diverging circuit

44:10 opposite. Alright. Information from a neuron A. Is being sent to

44:16 . C. And D. And . And so on, and so

44:18 . It's spreading the information outward. right. So example of this might

44:25 walking. Alright then. Signal to my muscles to contract to lift my

44:31 is also telling other parts of my to maintain balance and posture. In

44:35 words it's not just going to the neuron responsible for lifting my leg

44:40 It's also going to the many other said neuron but muscle many other muscles

44:45 help me stay upright when I lift foot up, the information is being

44:51 rather than localized the two weird The ones that are complex and hard

44:57 understand is the rhythm generating circuits. this is the rhythm one and the

45:01 after discharge. Alright, so in rhythm circuit, what you have here

45:05 a positive feedback loop. This one has three. As an example.

45:09 here A B and C. Is stimulating B. A. Is

45:12 stimulating. C. C. Is B. And B. Is stimulating

45:19 . So what you're doing now is input is coming in and repeating itself

45:24 such a way that you're making a and bigger signal. All right.

45:29 the idea is is it's like putting snowball on the top of a hill

45:34 the signal starts going downhill. But causes you to re stimulate. So

45:39 get a bigger signal as you keep back and back and back. And

45:43 your signal gets bigger and bigger and . We see these specifically specifically

45:51 And for example, anything that's just in and in nature, the most

45:56 one to think about is breathing. . You're not gonna learn about breathing

45:59 you get to the respiratory system in two or a and P.

46:03 breathing is simply a series of action that increase in terms of their number

46:09 frequency. And so what you're doing think about a breath, breath starts

46:14 slow, it gets big, And then what you do is when

46:19 stop it all and then it relaxes muscle again. And then what you

46:23 is you start off a couple of potentials and that relates to more and

46:27 . Is that causes the muscles to more and more and more. And

46:30 where you're getting that inhalation. That's rhythm pattern. So see if I

46:39 draw it dark. So it's like in terms of the pattern goes up

46:45 then it disappears and it goes up and over and over and all those

46:50 , it's just increasingly larger and more action potentials. The actual potential aren't

46:57 larger, it's the frequency of them the number of them that's really increasing

47:02 after discharge is even walk here. so in this case we have

47:07 There's 456 different neurons. And you see is there an output neuron in

47:13 little circuit here? Can you see ? Here's our output neurons notice that

47:20 the other neurons are converging on this . But if you look at this

47:26 you can think of these the lengths each of these individual neurons as that

47:32 equals how long it takes for a to get from that from that soma

47:38 that neuron. So to get from that is gonna be a lot faster

47:44 it takes to get from there. what I'm doing is I'm throwing another

47:47 so each of these results in a arriving at a different time In that

47:53 one neuron. So what you can here is that the original signal starts

47:57 here and it arrives in this last at different times, it would be

48:02 boom boom boom boom boom. So of having one signal and getting wonderful

48:08 , you get multiple responses from that neuron from that single signal because it's

48:13 through a whole bunch of different circuits different neurons, I should say.

48:18 right, the higher order. Thinking how we believe we process information is

48:28 stimulating through these types of circuits. did I lose you on those four

48:37 divergence? That's pretty easy. Would agree? Yeah, these two are

48:41 little bit complex. No questions. ? Um Well, got it.

48:50 can go home, explain to mom open the dog show where in the

48:55 it works. I'm just kidding. cut open the dog. All

49:02 So what are the properties of neuronal ? Alright. We know that they're

49:06 . That can exist in these different of ways. They're basically developed during

49:11 development, Right? And then we're to use that plasticity to basically change

49:17 relationships. All right. So, you think of every physiological process in

49:23 body being dependent upon the proper signal sent, then what you're looking at

49:29 is these the importance of these neuronal ? Alright, very very simple circuits

49:36 regulate very, very complex behaviors. kind of the neat thing. And

49:41 of the things that they can regulate produce are these unique things called

49:47 Alright, now reflex can be either reflex or spinal nerve reflex. And

49:51 we're talking about here is a way creating responses independent of thinking you don't

50:00 to process and think about a I'll just give you a simple example

50:05 you take your hand and stick it a hot stove, are you gonna

50:09 there and wonder whether or not you move it away. What do you

50:14 ? And then what is your response you move your hand away is usually

50:19 right, It's not like oh my is burning ouch. And then you

50:23 your hand away. So the reflex something that occurs independent of the processing

50:32 the higher orders of the brain. the strict definition, the textbook definition

50:41 a reflex is a rapid, pre meaning, involuntary reaction of the muscles

50:49 glands, some sort of stimulus. so we've got some definitions in

50:52 What's a stimulus? A stimulus is a check you get from the

50:58 It is a sensory input that initiates reflex. You can now understand why

51:03 call them stimulus checks. If I you money, you will spend

51:08 Right? Right. Isn't that what did? That's what I did.

51:12 me money, I'll spend it. got things like there are lots of

51:15 I want to buy. All rapid meaning. It takes very few

51:20 to get this to happen. It's pre programmed. That means the

51:24 is going to occur the exact same every single time. If I take

51:28 hand and stick it on a hot , you're gonna move your hand

51:30 If we get another hot stove put hand on it, you're gonna do

51:32 exact same thing. You're not gonna wait a second. I'm gonna process

51:37 . Alright? And then when the time you come to a stove,

51:39 your reflux going to be All Pre programmed. It's involuntary. That

51:48 no conscious intent and you can't suppress . That is the coolest part.

51:55 most reflexes are going to be integrated the level of the spinal cord.

52:01 what I said? The brain and spinal cord of the central nervous

52:04 They process information. So we're talking spinal cord here. What we're doing

52:08 we're not thinking about it, we're an initial response that occurs all the

52:15 . The exact same way we're doing . We have basic reflexes. These

52:20 unlearned. These are built in responses someone looks at you and smiles.

52:25 natural response built in is to smile . You ever looked at a baby

52:32 a baby for the first time, the baby know we know who you

52:36 ? No, you look up and with the baby and you go,

52:39 baby is so cute, you're so . And you put the smile

52:42 What does the baby do you sit and go, ah, no,

52:45 smiles or she smiles at you. is an innate response. In an

52:52 . It is not trained to it just does. So the other

52:59 is the condition. This is right , this the knee reflex. I

53:04 remember the name of that reflex. basically it's a it's a feeding

53:08 If you touch a baby right here it'll come and we'll then clasp and

53:14 suckling. Maybe it's the suckling Alright, But that's built in.

53:21 didn't know how to suckle. It starve to death. Alright? And

53:24 there's the conditioned response. The condition , this is the Pavlov and Pavlov's

53:30 thing. Remember Pavlov? Pavlov had dog? What he do? He

53:34 the bell, fed the dog, , The bell fed, the dog

53:36 , the bell didn't feed the What did the dog do? That's

53:41 the story is. But I think attacked Pavlov. Like, where is

53:45 food, dude? Right. But , that's salivates, right? Because

53:49 association became when the bell rings, given food, my natural response to

53:55 presence of food is to salivate. right, That's conditioned. You're all

54:02 if we had a buzzer in this and it rang at 10 till you

54:06 would get up like an army of and then start marching out of the

54:13 . Because you were trained for 18 . When the bell rang, it

54:16 time to move to my next This is the reflex arc. This

54:24 a picture. You should memorize not for the reflex, but it's also

54:28 to show you the division between the nervous system and the central nervous system

54:34 you're gonna see it over and over over again is really what it gets

54:36 to. All right. So, gonna use it right now for the

54:41 arc and then we're gonna come back you'll see it again and you're gonna

54:44 , oh yeah, that would be good idea to actually learn this.

54:48 , what we have here is this functional unit. All right. And

54:53 you can see over here I've got electric nail, you know, it's

54:56 because it has lightning bolts coming out it, right? And you can

55:03 I'm sticking the electric nail into the here and then you can see information

55:08 being passed into the central nervous system then something is going on and then

55:14 comes back out. That makes me . Right? Actually, what is

55:19 ? Really? I touched something I pulled my hand away. Really

55:25 basic reflex. Right, so this the smallest circuit you can create in

55:32 nervous system. It's showing detection processing . There's actually five steps in

55:42 There's not just three because I'm detecting here and I'm processing over here.

55:47 I need to get that information to spot where I'm processing. So where

55:53 detecting that's called the receptor. So input is detected at the receptor,

55:59 takes that information converts it into the of the nervous system, which is

56:04 be action potentials. That action or potentials plural is then sent along

56:10 pathway called the a different pathway. you're gonna have some teachers or some

56:15 who get around you and they'll say , that's fine. That's actually it's

56:19 pronunciation is different. But when you're it next to effort, which is

56:24 other one african different in texas sounds awful lot of light, so different

56:29 different? Makes it a little bit . So we have a different pathway

56:33 is into. So this is all system out here and then once we

56:38 into the spinal cord now we are the place where processing is going to

56:43 place. This is the integration Alright. When we see the central

56:49 system we're referring to. Now in particular example, this integration center includes

56:56 interneuron. You won't always have an , you can have several inter neurons

57:02 what you're doing is you're processing You're saying when I get poked by

57:06 electric nail there's gonna be some sort response that's gonna be elicited by the

57:12 center. You just have to stimulate by telling it that you've just got

57:15 and then what's gonna happen is the signal is then sent out via the

57:21 pathway. Alright, so now we're out in the periphery and we go

57:26 the thing that's going to make the or the response that is the

57:30 Er So receptor a fair pathway integration , different pathway to effect or the

57:37 er causes the effect. Whatever it to be in this particular case,

57:42 poking over here, I'm moving away a response to being stabbed. Were

57:48 or whatever you wanna call that up in this basic reflex arc. Note

57:58 information is not going up to the . All right. Does that mean

58:02 information doesn't go up to the No, but the response is not

58:08 upon the brain processing the information. . You can do it yourself,

58:12 home, find attack, take that , slam your hand on it.

58:15 what happens. Your hand's gonna be away and then you're going to start

58:20 me. You're not gonna curse me . You're going to curse me

58:25 right? Because that signal not being here in this basic pathway also has

58:30 pathway to send itself up to the . So, you can say,

58:32 , when I'm in pain, what the words that I say? Usually

58:36 ones. Now, there are different of reflexes. All right. And

58:45 they're just being categorized and sub categorized so on. So, this is

58:49 example of mono synaptic synapses versus policy synapses. And again, all the

58:56 tells you is that when you're mono , that means there's only one synapse

59:00 this process. If your policy that means you have more than

59:04 Alright, so mano synaptic are very basic simple reflex. It's the

59:09 simple one you can have. And , we're looking here. I love

59:13 pictures here. So here we're doing . The knee jerk reflex.

59:16 this would be the mono synaptic. can see here I'm hitting the tendon

59:21 being detected in the stretch receptor. information is going via the a fair

59:25 pathway into the integration center? But we don't have an interneuron here,

59:30 only synapse that's taking place is between different fiber and the or sorry,

59:35 different fiber and the different fiber. there's only one synapse, hence mono

59:41 . All right, so there's no input thats going to modify this.

59:45 just very, very basic. So hit the tendon because of the need

59:48 kick. This is the Polish synaptic . The one we just looked at

59:53 the last slide was an example of synaptic. And here what we're doing

59:57 we're doing stupid things in the We're taking a Bunsen burner and we're

60:01 our hand over it. Don't put hand over a burning Bunsen burner.

60:05 hurts a lot. And you can burning my hand information is being or

60:13 is being detected by a sensor receptor receptors up through the different pathway into

60:19 central nervous system. Alright, so in our integration center, here's the

60:24 fiber, it's being uh synapse sing an interneuron. So there's the first

60:30 that interneuron plays a role in the and it terminates on a second neuron

60:37 now you're onto that different pathway and going to be down to the

60:42 Now there's other things that are branching here that we're not seeing. So

60:47 I move my arm this direction. that for every agonist there's an antagonist

60:51 there's all sorts of other stuff information to go up to the brain.

60:55 so in polish synaptic you can have inputs coming in and other information going

61:02 from that particular synapse. We're just seeing it in the basic synapse.

61:10 right. So the simple definition one multiple synapses and we have inter neurons

61:17 the palace in Epic. Another way can classify these is how are they

61:23 in the body. Alright, So going to learn in the next unit

61:28 the autonomic nervous system. Autonomic is portion of your nervous system plays a

61:34 in then in involuntary structures in the . In other words, basically affecting

61:40 organs. Can you make your heart down? No, I saw one

61:46 to shake here. No, I . Right. Can you speed your

61:49 up? Right? But when that that you're really, really attracted to

61:53 up to you hold your hands, you deep in the eyes and

61:56 you know, you're really pretty or , you're so attractive to me,

62:00 heart's just gonna go no matter how you try to make a stop,

62:06 and you're probably gonna turn red and gonna be sitting there going I don't

62:08 to turn red, but you have choice. And if you're thinking I

62:11 want to turn red, it's probably get worse, right, right?

62:14 autonomic, I have no control over . So an autonomic reflex is that

62:20 occurring in response to that particular whatever it happens to be in this

62:25 . What they're trying to do is , look, I can detect the

62:28 of food in the digestive system that's create that reflex loop to cause the

62:34 muscles to contract and relax so that begin processing that that's an example of

62:41 . I can't tell my digestive system and when, not to digest

62:45 It does so naturally by virtue of presence. Somatic, on the other

62:51 , deals with voluntary control. when I'm moving my arms around my

62:56 around stuff like that, that's Alright. It's skeletal muscle and that's

63:01 we're looking at here. So, though it's a reflex, a reflex

63:08 independent of voluntary ideas. Right? I put my hand on that

63:16 I'm gonna jerk it away. I have to think about jerking away.

63:19 an autumn. That's an automatic That's what a reflex is. It's

63:23 a voluntary structure. That's doing the . That's what it's called.

63:29 All right, autonomic is. I control it whether I think about it

63:34 not it does so because it's pre in the body. Again, think

63:41 heart digestive system, kidneys, those of structures. How we doing on

63:49 . Oh, good. It will done, I think. Right,

63:52 time. All right. So, far I have I have this has

63:57 lecture lived up to its promise of all over the place. Yeah,

64:01 apologize. I mean, it's just that's how the chapter was written and

64:05 want to stay you know, true the chapter. Still, you're not

64:08 to jump here and jumping back and . I just want to keep it

64:12 along. And one of the weird that this textbook does is that in

64:18 of dealing with the anatomy of the system, I really want to take

64:21 sip and I have a hard time that. One of the weird things

64:26 it does is it works from the cord up to the brain and most

64:31 go the opposite direction, they go the brain down to the spinal

64:35 And so our starting point in terms anatomy is going to be the spinal

64:39 . All right now, it doesn't that it's wrong. It's just

64:43 It's weird and I think part of is because the author of this particular

64:50 really spend so much time talking about , wants to just kind of

64:53 Alright, we're just talking about Let's deal with this structure where the

64:56 take place. All right now, terms of structure, remember the spinal

65:02 exits out? It's connected to the and exited out the skull via the

65:07 and magnus. Alright, it's enclosed a whole bunch of bones. So

65:10 can see here here the vertebrae or vertebrae you can see there's the spinal

65:15 that's the body, that's the bone on one side. And we wrapped

65:19 all the way around it. And bone is sitting there encasing and protecting

65:25 spinal cord. And we said when protecting the spinals were not when we're

65:30 the central nervous system, we have , we had meninges, we had

65:33 spinal fluid, right? And we the blood brain barrier. And that's

65:36 going to be there as well. in the context of what we're looking

65:40 , just all those protections, the are still present. There's some uniqueness

65:46 it, but there's still all And when we look at the spinal

65:50 , we can subdivide it into regions upon their location. So very similar

65:55 how the vertebrae were named cervical thoracic and so on and so forth.

66:01 the way down. We have the thing. So, we're gonna have

66:04 cervical region. We're gonna have a region. We're gonna have a lumbar

66:08 , will have a sacral region. have a cock sigil region as

66:11 And those names are associated to where nerve fibers exit out of that spinal

66:21 . All right. And we'll get that a little bit later when we

66:23 about the spinal nerves. So if take a slice through and look at

66:30 cross section, you can see at in this cartoon, there are two

66:34 areas. We have an area that's matter. Alright. White matter is

66:38 on the external surface and then we this internal darker area which is called

66:44 matter. Alright. And we already about white matter and Gray matter.

66:47 matter is primarily fibers. So axons between two points. Gray matter is

66:54 cell bodies where information is being Okay, So structurally we have these

67:02 different areas. All right. if you look at it, you're

67:05 to see it and again, it on which section you're looking at.

67:09 gonna have the anterior in the post . So, this would be the

67:13 surface is the posterior. They're using and ventral. Again, it's just

67:18 kind of a nomenclature or terminology change taking place in recent years. But

67:23 are kind of flattened. This particular picture. It's not but in most

67:27 it looks like someone kind of took round structure and flatten it a little

67:31 and there's two major grooves that sit . I'm just gonna use the names

67:36 are here rather than mine. on the dorsal side of the posterior

67:40 you have the dorsal medial sulcus and it basically pushes down all the way

67:44 . Like. So, and then have the ventral medial medial fissure that

67:48 of comes in and so you can that there's this very small area that

67:54 connects the two sides. You could grab those two fishers and spread

67:59 You're still connected. But it's a very small portion of connection. All

68:05 . And no matter where depending on you are, you can see the

68:08 and shape of this change a little . So what I want to first

68:12 is I want to focus on the matter. Alright, So it's

68:16 Right? These areas? So, want you to imagine this this spinal

68:23 coming out of the screen and moving towards you. All. All

68:27 So basically we're looking at a patient's . So what these are? These

68:31 columns, Right? So if the cord is like this, you'd see

68:34 going up and down. But that's you're lying out. These white matter

68:40 are moving out towards you and the are called particularly. Alright, that's

68:45 plural, ridiculous is singular. There's of them. And so what you

68:50 is you just take a half. pick pick your favorite half or you're

68:53 or a right person conduct Twix. right. Sorry. That was a

69:00 of commercials. Now at that. weeks. Alright, so pick your

69:04 . So over here, this is dorsal funicula. This this right here

69:09 the lateral funicula and down here, the ventral fin Nicholas. So there's

69:16 per side, one in the back the one in the back, one

69:19 the front, one in the That's pretty simple, posterior anterior and

69:24 or ventral dorsal lateral. All Now, what these are. Is

69:31 they contain within them Bundles of fibers are traveling between two points. All

69:38 . So they're basically a whole bunch axons that have been bundled together and

69:43 now traveling up towards the burying or from the brain down through the spinal

69:49 to a specific location within the spinal . What we refer to these ascending

69:57 descending bundles as as we call them . All right, It's attract they

70:04 if they're going up to the they contain contain sensory fibers. If

70:08 coming from the brain, they contain fibers. And so now, if

70:12 go back to that original picture I you with the different in the different

70:17 coming into the body is sensory information into the central nervous system? Is

70:23 information coming out of the central nervous would be motor. Right, So

70:28 information going up to the brain would sensory information coming down from the brain

70:33 the spinal cord would be motor before heads on out. And so the

70:39 which we're going to learn some of a little bit later represent axons that

70:43 traveling together via similar origin or via destinations. Alright, I'm just gonna

70:49 this really, really briefly who here in Sugar Land just a couple of

70:53 . All right, in order to to Sugarland. What highway do you

70:57 ? 59? Right. And if are on 59 just south of uh

71:06 freaking to name the megachurch, it's there liquid thank you liquid church.

71:13 are six lanes of, of highway before you got to Lakewood, you're

71:21 there near Sheppard. There were about lanes or five lanes. Those five

71:26 are formed by streets coming off out downtown called Louisiana and A bunch of

71:34 coming off of 288. Right? if you ever driven that, it

71:38 , really sucks right? There's a bunch of traffic there, but because

71:41 spreads out all of a sudden now got people who can go where they

71:43 to go, some people are going exit and go via 6 10 north

71:48 6 10 south. But if you're down to Sugarland, you're gonna stay

71:52 the lanes that lead down to But for a period of time,

71:56 traveling 6:10 are going to travel along the people of going to 59 when

72:02 talking about tracks. That's kind of same thing. You're traveling between two

72:06 . Right? So from you of , you're getting on 45 to 2

72:10 to 59 then you're heading down 59 you're going to victoria, but you're

72:14 exit long before you get there, going to feel like forever, but

72:19 not too bad. Right? And the same thing. The tracks are

72:23 to tell you, I'm joining in I'm going in a specific location or

72:28 got a specific destination point. And nice thing about the tracks is what

72:32 going to see is that they're named where they start from and where they

72:35 up. We don't need to know . Now when we get there,

72:38 get there. Right? But today don't need to know that when you

72:43 to the gray matter of the spinal , you're gonna see that it's primarily

72:49 shape. So this is just from different textbook using different colors. We

72:53 this already. Right over here we the different fibers coming in. This

72:58 be our integration center. We've got fibers going out. Alright. And

73:03 we're integrating here. And so what going to find in the gray

73:07 Remember our cell bodies. And so cell bodies represent where integration for certain

73:13 are taking place. So what we ? Oh no, just died.

73:19 get batteries here. Mm hmm. , let's see if we are we

73:43 again. There we are. So you if you look at this,

73:48 we have what we have here are unique names for. So like when

73:54 had the white matter, we had , right? We had a dorsal

73:58 and ventral funicula here. What we are what are called horns. So

74:04 gray matter remember represents where cell bodies located. It doesn't ignore or you

74:11 kind of ignore that accidents are going originate there, but they're going out

74:13 the white matter, the gray matter primarily cell bodies. And we have

74:17 areas that are called horns. So just gonna use this right up

74:21 That's kind of a horn. That there is kind of horn. This

74:24 sticking out on the side is kind a horn. Different areas. It's

74:27 little bit more obvious, but this is not particularly obvious. And so

74:31 have names for those horns, just we have for them, particularly,

74:34 have the dorsal horn or the posterior . We have the ventral or anterior

74:39 . And then over here on the we have a lateral horn. And

74:42 each represent something unique that's being processed . Because if it's an integration

74:49 processing takes place in the integration center the gray matter. All right,

74:54 , this picture is again terrible. color coded so that you can see

74:58 is remember a ferret information, sensory is coming in and it's going to

75:03 of two places. All right. two places it's going to go to

75:08 it's going to be processed as somatic . So, if it's coming from

75:11 skin that's somatic, right? if I put my hand on a

75:16 stove, I'm gonna take that and my arm away. That would be

75:20 , right? Or it's gonna be meaning if it's something in my digestive

75:25 , it's going to come in from digestive system and it's going to go

75:28 out to the digestive system. So it's somatic in nature, what it's

75:33 do is it's going to go up to the dorsal horn. Okay,

75:38 that's where sensory input is. If visceral in nature, it's going to

75:44 be up here in the door but it's gonna be in a slightly

75:47 area. It's gonna be a lot to the lateral horn. So what

75:50 can say is that sensory input is going to have neurons for processing,

75:58 the gray matter of the dorsal Mhm. That's the first part.

76:03 wherever you see blue up there, is sensory input coming in the latter

76:08 the ventral then deal with motor Alright, this is where the cell

76:13 of the motor neurons originate. you can think about that loop,

76:17 ? I have information coming in. terminate here on the inter neuron in

76:24 dorsal horn and then I'm going to a syn at or send an axon

76:29 to stimulate a neuron down here in the venture or the lateral. If

76:34 a somatic signal, I'm going to to the ventral horn. If I

76:42 an autonomic sin signal, I'm going go to the lateral horn.

76:48 So let's put it together real I put my hand on the hot

76:53 since your input goes to the dorsal , I move my hand, That

76:57 somatic. So the signal to move hand originates in the ventral horn.

77:05 right. I eat a big It goes into my stomach. My

77:10 begins to digest in response to that . So the information of the detection

77:16 the food and my digestive tract is to be going to the dorsal

77:21 And then the information to cause the muscles to start doing their little dance

77:26 going to be found in the lateral and then the information goes out and

77:32 to wherever it needs to go via different pathway. All right. I'm

77:38 that look up there. So, remember you've got to think about that

77:41 process We did? Right sensor. different pathway into the integration center.

77:48 center is going to be the gray and then it's like, where do

77:52 do? So I go in and terminate in the dorsal and then that

77:57 that gets sent to either ventral or or ventral or lateral, depending if

78:02 somatic, ventral, lateral autonomic and out via the different pathway and then

78:10 to the defector. If I'm What's my defector? If I'm

78:21 what's my factor? Look at your up here? Making an asset out

78:25 himself. What is it muscle? skeletal muscle? All right. That's

78:32 key word there. If I had autonomic, it can be smooth

78:37 cardiac muscle or a gland. I smell the cheeseburger or the brownie

78:46 whatever it is that makes your mouth watery. I begin to salivate.

78:49 defector is your salivary glands. so with regard to the meninges,

79:02 Dura Matter has single layer instead of , right? It basically provides stability

79:08 the spinal cord between the dura matter the bone. There is a layer

79:13 fat that's in the epidural region. epi is above dura. So above

79:19 dura, that epidural would be epidural . Meninges continue along the spinal nerves

79:29 you can see here and they continue a little bit um The area underneath

79:36 have the subarachnoid space still has So there's still a subarachnoid space.

79:41 what's interesting and it's really hard to in this picture much. Let's do

79:45 this way that right there and that there, those are called the identical

79:50 ligaments. And so you can imagine spinal cord, it's kind of like

80:00 chord. It just kind of flops . So how do you keep things

80:06 flopping around? You tie them And so the lenticular ligaments are basically

80:13 the spinal cord all along its length the side so it moves with the

80:23 . Okay, yeah, since I this in my hand, I'm gonna

80:31 this still but notice your spinal cord kind of dangles, right? So

80:38 it's still moving with your vertebrae, still not really tied down here at

80:43 bottom of it is. And what needs to do that is called the

80:49 terminology. So you can see it , it comes straight down and it's

80:55 little green thing that's tied down right . And what that does is it

81:00 holds a cord in a straight position it doesn't move. Except when you

81:11 , the spinal chord grows a lot than your bones do. So the

81:15 of your spinal cord is like about long, right? But your vertebrae

81:20 like this, so it's a lot . So the end of the spinal

81:25 , that's true is right up here L. one and L.

81:29 It's called the Conus terminally. But spinal nerves continued down through that vertebral

81:37 and they exit out at the proper between the vertebrae. Hence why we

81:43 or number are spinal nerves based on exit point. That mess of spinal

81:50 . It's called the kata Aquafina Easy to Remember Kata. Its tail.

82:01 , horse, it looks like a of horses tail. All right,

82:07 the structure is like that. if you went through and looked at

82:10 those spinal nerves that are exiting, 31 of them paired. They're going

82:14 through the inter vertebral framing based upon location. So the reason we're able

82:18 name the parts of the spinal cord because each each part of the spinal

82:22 has its own spinal nerve exiting out particular location that it needs to.

82:27 see two enlargements. There's gonna be here and there'll be an enlargement up

82:32 , which represents those nerve fibers that then going to travel down, exit

82:37 their proper location and then travel down the limbs. Alright, so just

82:42 more fibers exiting at those particular even though there's not, there's just

82:49 nerves is really what we're trying to at. So the first one is

82:53 be the cervical that's up high, for the arms and then the lumbar

82:57 is for the legs. So I here three extra minutes. I apologize

83:03 that when we come back. Hopefully gonna slowly work our way up to

83:07 brain stem and up and into the so we can see all the pieces

83:10 . There's all right. It will more organized than the garbage that we

83:16 through

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