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00:02 that's your routine of neuroscience and what talked about last lecture was an excitatory

00:10 ergic and inhibitory gaba ergic neural And we just started talking about inhibitor

00:18 transmissions. But these are the two amino acids neurotransmitters. As you know

00:24 . Gaba. We called it. of the inhibitory cells will be expressing

00:29 acid speaker box list will stay positive it because they will be synthesizing and

00:34 releasing Gaba. You have the transporters will transport and recycle glutamate and gaba

00:42 the prison optic terminals and then you have transporters that will transform these molecules

00:49 the vesicles for them to be released the top left boston, optically glutamate

00:56 bind to three times of I am tropic glutamate er surface that we discussed

01:00 appetite and an M. B. . Each of them having their own

01:04 agonists and antagonists. We know that PTSD is a composite number of potential

01:12 to an excitatory glutamate release here and . P. S. P.

01:16 a combination of the amBA and an . A. Components. We learned

01:20 amber receptors will open immediately with the of glutamate and then magnesium block and

01:27 order to alleviate that magnesium block number potential has to be polarized. That

01:33 to alma receptors. Then the nephew open and they allow for the flux

01:39 the ions and the media is not for the late phase of the

01:44 S. P. Component. Excitatory synaptic potential component and an NBA receptors

01:49 always let in calcium inside this house is a significant source of secondary messengers

01:56 the fox synaptic side. So review there is a specific antagonist CN QX

02:03 AMP a specific antagonist for an D. A receptor in Tv.

02:08 don't confuse an M. D. receptor with a matter with tropical Eden

02:13 that are G protein length and functioning this possible I've a c cascade.

02:19 is an experiment where we describe voltage planting the potential in different holding potential

02:26 and in the presence of magnesium there little in an NBA currents at hyper

02:31 potentials, the reversal of an D. A. Occurrences at zero

02:37 . And if we remove this magnesium creates a Condition of hyper excitability and

02:44 often used in seizure models and Vitra Viva also. And if you remove

02:51 from its regular extra cellular concentration you it to zero from 1.22 you can

02:59 C. N. M. A receptor flocks currents to an

03:01 D. A receptor hyper polarized So then we described the two

03:06 V. Curves for ample receptor and M. D. A receptor ample

03:11 having a linear curve and they're responsible the early components the key early components

03:16 the EBS. P. And D. A receptors. These closed

03:21 have a nonlinear I. V. because they've blocked with magnesium while the

03:25 polarization they start conducting and they are for this blue area that occurred which

03:31 the late component of E. P. So if you apply a

03:36 this protagonist one M. D. receptor you will essentially eliminate this blue

03:41 that occurred for this deep polarization that see here. And we'll have these

03:46 circles which is essentially a flat line to zero. There is no current

03:51 be recorded in the presence of the . We also talked about how these

03:58 channels are very sophisticated three dimensional structures an ample receptors substitution of one amino

04:06 . We didn't mean with argentine results the passage of calcium through that receptive

04:12 or not which is quite significant. then from metal with tropic within interceptors

04:19 talked about this possible life. They activation breakdown of the I.

04:24 Tuned into the hospital dr phosphate and in magazines and glycerol activation of the

04:31 dr phosphate of calcium receptor channels and of calcium from the plasma particularly from

04:39 calcium and general stores. To build these calcium concentrations inside the cell as

04:44 as that will serve as a secondary of the dag remains membrane bound and

04:51 be affecting downstream protein kindly see so can see that there is a divergence

04:57 that pathway through the molecular breakdown of . I. P. Two.

05:02 activation of both intracellular calcium release and numbering associated uh kindnesses Ec recall that

05:12 is our post correlating the donating and . 04 booth uniform remind us um

05:21 are defrost correlating. Well we talked gavel. We just introduced Gaba a

05:29 . And Gaba binding to Gaba A will cause influence of chloride. So

05:35 of chloride will cause hyper polarization for PSP. We also talked about the

05:41 that this receptor Gaba a receptor So I'm a tropic, it has

05:48 sides for such substances like ethanol alcohol it as opinions which are pharmaceutical medications

05:58 boost inhibition and are commonly used to epilepsy and seizures. So if there

06:04 too much excitation, too much calcium the brain. One strategy to control

06:08 excitation is to boost inhibition because if boost inhibition you can maintain the excitation

06:15 common way of boosting inhibition is by Gaba agonists such as benzodiazepines. Other

06:24 such as barbiturates will also bind to receptor channel. Euro steroids also will

06:31 . This illustrates that these different molecules have their own binding side. So

06:36 is really complex three dimensional structure. same goes for glutamate and M.

06:40 . A receptor channel. We have different binding sites from magnesium for singing

06:46 glutamine for slicing and some of these that are made by humans pharmaceuticals or

06:53 natural chemicals that are plant derived or derived. They sometimes can also compete

06:58 the same slop. So some of molecules will be competitive agonist that means

07:04 will be competing with another molecule they into the same. These these these

07:10 sites you can view them as key on the door and one receptor has

07:17 different logs and you can regulate how that door opens or closes by opening

07:23 locking different walks. And sometimes two are trying to fit in the same

07:28 from the same hall in the same hole that will be competing for the

07:32 space on the receptor. So they be referred to as competitive agonists,

07:38 competing for that swap. Now this gala activation as I am a tropic

07:45 and influx of chloride which causes hyper . Yeah, but the receptor you

07:50 learn today boston ethically. It is to G protein complex which actually will

07:56 potassium channel opening of the potassium channel cause the flocks of potassium and potassium

08:03 charge. Leaving the south will cause hyper polarization inside the south precision optical

08:11 receptors located on the pre synaptic terminals control influx of calcium through gulf educated

08:17 channel. So you'll see it's a mechanism to the endocannabinoid actions. September

08:23 are different in the sense of retrograde . This is going to be stimulation

08:30 synaptic stimulation that you discuss in a . This diagram puts everything that we've

08:36 studying that we learned and that we I think quite well at this

08:42 So first of all we have this synapse here, this is inhibitor interneuron

08:48 releases Gava it will be standing positive God enzyme. And you have a

08:55 exhibit tourists around here And as you , these excited during his bitter synopsis

09:00 be located next to each other. could be a greater number of excited

09:04 the synopsis in certain areas. Greater of inhibitors synopsis, you know that

09:09 soma will integrate the information and decide it's excited enough to fire an action

09:14 or not. But we also learn inhibition can shunt excitation or can cancel

09:20 excitation from distal regions. Right? so there's gonna be interactions with these

09:27 inhibitors synopsis. And if there is ambient release of Gaba inhibitory neurons were

09:32 optically combined to Gaba A receptors here blue. This is Gabby. Reece

09:38 first with the wings here, this the receptor. This is a potassium

09:45 in red. This is calcium channel topically from purple. This is our

09:51 M. D. A receptor that's on these green pods synaptic densities and

09:56 a significant source of influx of calcium M. D. A receptor recall

10:00 a coincidence detector. It's very important learning and memory and plasticity along the

10:08 . So there is this ambient level Gaba here, Gabba move onto

10:13 Gaba receptor channels chloride will come in we'll hyper polarized yourself Gabba will also

10:19 to gather B. G protein coupled which will then open the potassium channel

10:25 the G protein complex causing further hyper . So post synaptic lee you will

10:32 one hyper polarizing potential. Typically if have a stimulation you will see an

10:39 . P. S. B. that E PSP is often followed by

10:45 early idea. Speak okay. And early I PS PS chloride mediated.

10:53 what Gaba is trying to do is to reach the equilibrium potential for

10:59 Remember that nurse potential equilibrium potential that talked about in the first section.

11:05 this is Gaba A. Okay and some delay medical tropic activation you have

11:17 of gather B. And in this he tries to drive the number in

11:25 the equilibrium potential for potassium because it the potassium channel nearby. So it's

11:33 an effect essentially hyper polarization. Now if Gaba spills over here, there

11:41 also pre synaptic Gaba B auto their auto receptors because they're located on

11:47 south of the lease Gaba and binding Gaba to these auto receptors through G

11:52 complex will shut down influx of And if you close these calcium channels

12:00 don't have enough calcium that means that cannot bind these vesicles and release any

12:06 gather. So it's an auto regulation through these auto receptors and there is

12:11 lot of Gabba being released and it's to still over here back to the

12:16 synaptic side and actually got a view Remember and um cannabinoids through CB one

12:22 activation did the similar thing they shut calcium influx and regulated neurotransmitter release.

12:28 this is another mechanism through gravity In fact later when we talk today

12:34 the dentist receptors, dentists and receptors also present ethnic G protein coupled receptors

12:40 ruling to calcium channel and denison regulates calcium influx excitatory synopsis. So now

12:49 this is an ambition and this is . We have excitatory synapse releasing glutamate

12:55 finding an M. D. A have deep polarization influx of calcium costume

13:01 this influx into cellular activation of Co modular and kindness to Gaussian chinese

13:10 can actually cause prosper elation of Gaba channels and opening of the potassium

13:17 This is jeopardy in coupled receptor and of the potassium channel, thereby hyper

13:23 the song I'm afraid gathered opening potassium can hyper polarize excitatory synapses. And

13:33 if this Gabba this is all with . There's no gabba here the solid

13:38 but through calcium and interests out of stores and activation of Gaba B.

13:42 can regulate excitation in the glue, synapse boston optical even more so this

13:49 synapses so active that there's so much Gaba being released as Gabba is going

13:53 spill over and that spilled over gavel activate this post synaptic gaba B two

14:00 couple receptors that can then hyper polarize post synaptic excitatory terminal through the opening

14:08 the potassium check furthermore the spillover of can bind to gaba B. Hetero

14:16 . Their hetero because they're located on excited terrorist synopsis and there are other

14:22 here because the release gatherings released here it binds its own synopsis receptors priest

14:30 here you have Gabba now binding hetero shutting down calcium influx and shutting down

14:39 uh release. So now you can how you have be. You know

14:47 will have ample kina and Andy Avery's . Of course the situation will be

14:51 more complex. We can introduce medical ultimate receptors. You want to complicate

14:58 even more. Let's put in some channel some nicotine nick somewhat schizophrenic.

15:06 and add some color with dopamine or . But I think that this level

15:13 understanding is is really important and this a good diagram to ask questions

15:18 So this is actually experiments that I when I was in graduate school I

15:23 stimulating all the nerve and I was from the colonists learned about talentless visual

15:28 and I would get this gps few that would be followed by an

15:33 P. S. P. That's a fluoride gotta be potassium and Gaba

15:40 receptor has its own antagonist by cumulative an antagonist. So if this is

15:45 same stimulus and trace one you can you produce a Smalley bsp by stimulating

15:51 fibers here and this E. S. P. S followed by

15:55 . P. S. P. then traced to you add by queue

15:58 which blocks and conditions. But when block in addition you produce the same

16:03 . Um Instead of this small response by hyper polarization you get this massive

16:10 arising plateau like potential action potentials writing top of it. So hydroxy sacrifice

16:18 is an antagonist for gallery view But this is important that located can

16:24 this excitation essentially Unchecked. No So protein coupled receptors are seven um membrane

16:35 helix structures that are linked in jeopardy when we talk about a couple of

16:40 masculinity receptors, are you part in couple of the civil coloring Leader made

16:47 have a variety of political tropic receptors 12 maybe up to 14. Now

16:53 D there's different subtypes are one in to serotonin variety of the five HT

17:01 B. C. T five. four and so on, dopamine,

17:06 and africa, alpha and beta uh catholic and we haven't talked about

17:14 We talked about CB one receptor on two. We'll talk about CB two

17:18 in the course and a T. . Is an energy molecule and also

17:23 is supportive energy molecule. It will all acting through a medical tropic.

17:28 actress here. So what are some the things you have to know?

17:33 you have to know the difference between and after the metal tropic signaling cascades

17:40 hospitalized A C. potassium we didn't much about the serotonin receptors.

17:49 We did distinguish between North and often norepinephrine data and the whole push and

17:54 mechanisms we discussed. We talked about actions of vendor cannabinoids and CB one

18:00 which is pre synaptic and we'll actually regulating calcium influx and nurture is gonna

18:06 And http will be mentioning a little more as well. Now these are

18:12 mitigated channels and you can see these g protein gated channels receptors and these

18:18 the transmitter channels. And as you see these transmitter channels they have several

18:23 , five sub units and each subunit four trans membrane segments. These are

18:30 four trans membrane segments. You have cellular and intracellular domains of these per

18:37 . And you can see that you variations. You can have two alpha

18:42 , beta delta gamma. You can two alpha two data and one delta

18:48 alpha, two data and one So the combination of these different sub

18:54 or the ion channels will dictate the of these ion channels that may be

19:01 more than maybe opening fast and then open for a longer time period and

19:08 . Now when we look at the pharmacology of these island, a tropical

19:13 tropics signaling. These are the things we've learned acetylcholine nicotine in Moscow Rennick

19:19 must screen. So if you put the neuro muscular junction. It will

19:28 be a contraction of muscles because he block acetylcholine receptors. He would block

19:36 potential. They will not be able cause a twitch in the hospital.

19:41 alpha and beta. We didn't talk agonist antagonist where we talked about the

19:45 pull mechanism. Glutamate happened. India easy seeing Q. X. And

19:50 P. B. We should no be for sure because it's in the

19:53 with view plots we just mentioned. protagonist is by Http will bind to

20:04 two acts and also a type or type of perspectives. Http is an

20:10 antagonist antagonist antagonist and for a P receptor antagonist. A ceremony and

20:17 deficits receptor antagonists. Kathy something that of us who is almost every

20:23 sometimes a few times a day. substance Starbucks knows very well about

20:33 If it wasn't addictive you wouldn't need Starbucks on one corner of some

20:42 Um So caffeine, the dentist in calcium influx and blocks glutamate release caffeine

20:53 of dentists and reception. So by the dentist in receptor it promotes glutamate

20:58 if you may it kind of helps up the glue dramaturgical neural transmission.

21:07 now if you look at these gaba receptor subunits. So these are just

21:12 on the tropic. You have six four data subunits sometimes. Mhm.

21:18 I'm a raw delta. Mhm. had a lot of some bodacious of

21:26 one beta 1 alpha one beta to one beta three alpha one beta

21:34 And each time you have a slightly combinations. That channel will have slightly

21:40 properties, functional properties, not just properties in general with neural transmission,

21:47 have amplification. Your transmitter will bind the protein complexes will bind to the

21:54 channel protein complexes. One complex can multiple downstream of factors. One factor

22:02 activate multiple secondary messengers, secondary messengers kindness is the hospital basis can affect

22:11 channels nearby multiple molecules. So you the simplification through the neurochemical transmission through

22:21 transmission. You don't have amplification, a fraction of electrical signal transfers.

22:28 the second messenger cascades you have a . We talked about divergence convergence redundancy

22:36 parallel streets. The wonder transmitter combined receptor subtypes negative masculine IQ same

22:45 half of one alpha two beta one norepinephrine. One result for sub pop

22:50 be linked through three systems affected systems . Y. Z. So you

22:54 the divergence. You can also have where three neurotransmitters are binding to their

23:00 channels. A pastor, A B C. C. But they all

23:06 on the same effective system, let's probably kindly say. Or cyclic.

23:13 right. Data receptor and norman up data is pushing the production of psycho

23:19 alpha receptor is reducing the production cycle . They're converging on the same

23:26 Sometimes they will have additive effects in same direction. Sometimes they will have

23:32 subtracted effects onto the same target. have parallel streams and redundancy. So

23:39 same transmitter can bind to a one mm hmm. And get to factor

23:47 . And you can also get to one by buying into a two

23:53 So you have parallel the same. then you have parallel scenes here and

23:58 you have the emergence here. What if you eliminate one transmitter as a

24:07 ? You have a little bit of . So if you get rid of

24:11 , do you lose all of these ? No, you will still have

24:16 to a factor three that was activated transmitter A. You have a redundant

24:23 . So this concludes our session on transmission. And we're going to move

24:32 to the brain. The structure of brain on the cuisine would be responsible

24:40 everything after this point. But when talk about the brain, this is

24:45 brains to scale small and rabbit. , cat, sheep from pansy,

24:51 dolphin. It was up in nephrologist would be running the um um um

24:59 um um um Parliaments and the government be at the top of the food

25:09 but size is not everything. And lot of it has to do with

25:13 . A lot of it has to with complexity of structure and a lot

25:17 it has to do with connectivity. yes, you could actually say that

25:22 are much smarter than humans in certain . But if we were placed in

25:27 dolphin environment, we would be worthless not survived. So they have

25:33 We don't have animals have brains that information in the outside world, but

25:39 cannot process. They hear frequencies recounted . They see wavelengths we cannot

25:45 He sends temperatures the way we do . So it just depends size and

25:54 can mean a real advantage in a environment and the disadvantage in another.

26:03 This is rat brains. They're pretty . Lizard brains are also smooth.

26:08 don't have the the rooms and Do you hear in the same lizard

26:17 ? It's not very smart. Typically smooth brain. There's no salsa and

26:23 that you will be seeing in the order animals all the way to the

26:28 is not to scale, but just show the differences in the artwork,

26:32 anatomical structure. Whenever you talk about and neural anatomy, you already have

26:39 some of this language and biology or in high school. A lot of

26:45 terminology. A lot of it is down the words, vital logic.

26:52 a lot of it. Maybe it some latin words in it, but

26:57 can break it all down and take all apart. And a lot of

27:00 anatomical structures will be noted based on descriptions where they're located. What section

27:09 the brain. You're looking at what of the brain or spinal cord you're

27:13 at. So for your anonymous, have interior and or austral front,

27:21 problem in the Gayle dorsal as you , ventral. Since brain spinal cord

27:29 can see in rodents There is not angle between the brain and the spinal

27:35 . And humans spend about almost 90° the brain because we're standing up on

27:43 legs They're not on four lights. that's in the middle is medial,

27:48 that's to the side of the outside lateral. Then you have these

27:55 , you have Roscoe to coddle cut this plane. If you were to

27:59 the brain, this would be called sagittal cuts and mid sagittal view will

28:03 you to visualize everything from inside of brain from Roswell to cardinal directions,

28:09 have horizontal cuts, kurono cuts and important because for your anonymous, you

28:17 , when somebody asks you, how I get to Houston roadie?

28:23 nobody asked you that anymore because they the cell phone, navigation in the

28:31 out. But let's say you don't these tools that you still once in

28:35 while have to, your phone is or something saying, how did they

28:39 to Nrg Stadium the rhodium. So would you describe it? Well,

28:46 have to go there, you have take this road and turn right or

28:51 and typically, uh if it's typically if it's females interestingly for spatial locations

29:00 would be brand descriptions of what stores . So, you know, once

29:06 pass KFC and next to you target behind that then. So for

29:13 for guys that maybe sometimes oh you north or you go south, uh

29:20 description is a little bit different. when somebody told you you would still

29:24 you kind of find your way to and you feel like there's energy and

29:28 and I can park into the Now, the same with your

29:32 somebody told us that this is a section, the occipital of you're looking

29:40 this plane and as a neuro I'm going to look at it as

29:45 map and say, ha ha ! is my target. There is my

29:49 stadium. I know exactly where I because there will be descriptions that you're

29:54 at the mythological view, posterior portion so on and so forth. This

30:00 the right hemisphere. The left of course you have lateralization of brain

30:05 , not only localization of brain function we talked about like the lateralization of

30:09 brain function because you recall Broca's area area. They were on the left

30:16 . So there are certain features and that are lateral. Ized between the

30:21 and the right hemisphere, although obviously of them talk to each other all

30:25 time through a bundle that is called olfactory bulbs. And this is a

30:31 brain cerebellum brainstem and spinal cord. you can see the factory bulbs which

30:36 more of faction and smell? It's very large compared relatively to the rest

30:44 the size of the brain, cerebral cerebral hemispheres process information. Cultural

30:51 So much information, sensor information from right side is processed by the left

30:57 . Motor command on the right side given by the left hemisphere. And

31:03 is referred to contra lateral, the side if it's the same side like

31:08 cerebellum, it's gypsy lateral. So of the motor commands and motor

31:14 Motor command initiation happens in the cortex some sub cortical areas and basal

31:21 But sarah Palin is also involved in and movement control. The commands that

31:26 from the cortex will be executing on cultural lateral side. Cerebellum commands will

31:31 adjusted and executed on the same And there's a lot of internet connectivity

31:37 cerebellum and cerebrum and vice versa. you have a lot of cerebellum,

31:43 and cerebellum cerebral pathways that will be through the brain stuff into connecting these

31:51 regions of the brain. A lot the cerebellum is referred to as a

31:54 brain brain stem also contains a number nuclei that are responsible for breathing for

32:02 . Trade for essentially vital body cons functions, consciousness control body temperature.

32:11 not saying that there is a suit consciousness and brain cell. But uh

32:17 uh the nuclei that control the breathing the heart rate and brain stuff.

32:23 very important. Yeah. Why are very important? It turns out that

32:31 know you hear these days about opioid that there is a massive problem in

32:37 country with sentinel and the opioids whether pharmaceutical or whether they're illegal, illicit

32:45 is because there's a lot of opiate in the brain stem is controlled breathing

32:50 heart rate. So opiates are very for that reason because they can affect

32:56 vital body functions. The other reason opiates are dangerous when we talk with

33:02 to brain stop is and the fact those is okay is this big and

33:09 definitely does of opiate suddenly 34 times the effect that does an effective dose

33:14 something that helps you with something has effect aim treatment with opioids and effect

33:20 does With three times as effective does lethal. And that's where we're having

33:28 with opiates because they target these brain nuclear, they target these vital body

33:35 . And if you exaggerate and we about these systems as I described,

33:40 systems are dynamic and it's like every and every chemical electrochemical system it's

33:48 it's like a spring, it's like rubber band, you can stretch that

33:53 band goes back stretch, it again back, stretch it again, it

33:57 back stretch it too much brakes and problems. So with certain systems like

34:06 opioid system that dynamic range for the dose and for the dose it snaps

34:14 system, There's only 3-4 times the . That's why it is Susan

34:21 That's why when you hear about either pharmaceutical drugs or illicit drugs like Canada's

34:28 example of THC in marijuana, there's deaths from marijuana because there's very few

34:34 cannabinoid receptors in the brainstem that control multi functions. So there's no reason

34:40 deaths from, from THC overdoses in lizards. But there's no reporting deaths

34:47 that substance. It's very important that start understanding these things caffeine. The

34:54 that it does is what Kathleen Well will say maybe it's five expression of

35:02 in the morning, it's my effect does typically 12 cups you see people

35:08 drink coffee all day long and wired , it's like oh my God,

35:12 personally gone flipping, you know, that's effective dose. What's the deadly

35:19 of caffeine? I drink about 100 of coffee in an hour or

35:24 It's pretty much deadly. Does is possible to achieve actually it's possible to

35:29 . So there are some certain substances we use every day actually that you

35:34 that if you have sometimes a little too much coffee that's the dentist and

35:38 are not only praying as the dentist receptors are also in the heart.

35:43 what happens to heart starts racing blood goes up. So a lot of

35:48 lot of things against for some people affected those is 12 sips that have

35:54 high sensitivity to caffeine. Why denison ? How do we know about

36:02 I'm talking about brain stuff. So important that we understand different substances,

36:07 they affect different parts of the We have beautiful peripheral nervous system.

36:12 don't really talk about this. But know everything that's going into voluntary somatic

36:18 sensory skin joints, muscles don't have to cover it. We have autonomic

36:23 system. We have a pheasant, nervous system. We have essentially nervous

36:29 that is aligned itself along the digestive and the digestive performance. But we

36:38 talk much about it. It's becoming life of what you eat is very

36:42 about how your brain feels. Um President ERic Knowledge system is probably as

36:51 as the cns with as many connections many different parts and also interactions with

36:58 CNN. So no time to cover inflection that the brain protects itself.

37:06 brain has this thick skull over So we talked about entrepreneurs nations earlier

37:11 underneath that thick skull, we have , dura mater and the hard

37:16 Subdural arachnoid space or act annoyed membranes more like spider like member of the

37:23 and the PM model of the jungle on the very surface of the brain

37:28 , the vasculature and micro vessels that penetrating into the blood into the brain

37:34 And micro vessels. One from another no more than 50 micrometers apart from

37:41 brain tissue. So there's a very supply of oxygen. The nutrients through

37:46 blood and neurons are exquisitely sensitive to deprivation. They demand a lot of

37:55 . And as we discussed, if deprive neurons of oxygen for about two

37:59 , they start dying. So now happens for example, this this this

38:08 mater is thick. You cannot poke finger in there just to give you

38:12 idea in order to penetrate dura you have to cut through with a

38:18 or a sharp knife. So it's a really thick kind of a

38:23 almost like skin like layer that is hard to penetrate through. This is

38:30 of the skull is broken. Then skull bones may be stopped by dura

38:36 without penetrating the tissue, rather just a blood trauma on the surface.

38:43 What happens if you have a subdural or leakage of blood rupture of a

38:50 vessel, coagulation of the blood molecules of the hardened blood structures that would

38:57 referred to as hematomas. You can hematomas. If you have a trauma

39:02 your leg or arm, you will the hardening of the blood and the

39:07 area and it stays there and it a long time to clear up and

39:11 a dozen and you have to go the hospital and have a minor surgery

39:16 they will open up the skin and out the coagulants. Clear out and

39:21 to treat the hematoma is. But it happens securely, the only way

39:26 you can clean up that wound and rid of that is by doing a

39:31 tra pronation and so many forest. when we talked originally about brain entrepreneur

39:36 , the prehistoric times, in the , in the ancient times when they

39:41 opening the skulls, which said there so many reasons to alleviate the pressure

39:46 release bad spirits to clean up the and to point up the Thelma's.

39:52 if you needed to clean up an following a trauma or if there was

39:59 rupture of the blood vessel like a like situation and you had a build

40:05 of the blood and have autonomous great nations would be very helpful in cleaning

40:11 so and repeated greater information. we saw the office quarry reflexes and

40:16 ventricles that produce cerebrospinal fluid and there's renewal. So cerebral spinal fluid every

40:22 and the super spinal fluid is not model of protection. So your brain

40:28 cushioned by this gel like fluid that's and it's filling in through them.

40:33 brain filling into the ventricles going all way into the spinal cord from Rossville

40:41 . If there is that normal production cerebrospinal fluid, there might be especially

40:46 development and formation of hydrocephalus or hydrocephalus structures in the brain and in the

40:54 . If there is a normal collection of this fluid production or normal drainage

41:00 that foot through the subarachnoid spaces of spaces, then what happens is this

41:08 will reward and we will start start of the brain tissue and the brain

41:17 gonna start pushing on the skull. about the brain tissue. And

41:23 The skull plates have not fused and bone the salt. The first few

41:29 of life the bone is shaping itself the soft tissue grows, the bone

41:35 hard, the bone is soft. the bone grows made up of cells

41:40 it surrounds that. So if there's , the formation of these ventricles will

41:46 on the brain tissue will push on skull and cause this abnormal alien like

41:53 who knows what alien heads look what alien like shapes of these

41:58 And the only way to alleviate this to drain the fluids by inserting a

42:04 into the ventricle. Modern days it done, it is chronic problem with

42:09 drainage into the peritoneal cavity. There's extra room on this tube. So

42:14 a child grows, the cycling is monitored as being relieved of the abnormal

42:22 . Um It's rare. It happens can happen during because of trauma can

42:27 because of the infection. I saw case of hydrocephalus and the texas.

42:33 ICU that was due to shaken Um The baby had shaken baby syndrome

42:43 had hydrocephalus and the father was actually escorted by police from from ICU,

42:50 baby is um it's a situation where not very well educated parents that are

42:58 frustrated with their little babies that won't crying and of course they have their

43:03 and stress and start shaking. Just to stop crying. And that this

43:09 shaking and shaking off the head can upset the formation of the of the

43:16 through the spinal fluids. So, it is rare, it is rare

43:20 that happens that also go back to jeopardy nation. So, if you

43:24 a child in the prehistoric times, my God, the head is like

43:29 some weird shape. Something is going . So you probably would call the

43:34 that does great interpretations and say, we look in here and see what's

43:38 on? So that would be another why the prehistoric neuroscientists would perform with

43:45 . Okay, so the next couple slides, we're gonna look at the

43:49 of the cns and in particularly the do formation or this process of pure

43:56 . We have this beautiful neural We also have the three major um

44:03 off primordial tissues, entered a Um and back to Durham Endo Durham

44:11 the lining of internal organs. Um Mezza Durham becomes skeletal bones and

44:18 ectodermal becomes nervous system and skin. skin cells actually the most similar.

44:24 primordial stage two neurons. Um you this play here and then you have

44:32 formation of the neural groove of the hall coming in now this is

44:39 this is Chicago and this plate will follow them and form a two in

44:44 middle radius surrounded by cell mites have material column and skeletal muscles and you

44:52 a neural crest here also. And is the new relation process. It's

44:59 rare if you can have some developmental that are related to specifically neural tube

45:08 , it's very rare again. And I say it's rare, I also

45:14 about how complex this is. This like a cartoon looks really simple,

45:23 complex distance, how many cells mechanisms to come to Vienna the self

45:32 It's a code and then the brand assembles. Once that code it started

45:39 be executed and for the for the that how complex this organ is,

45:47 are not that many failures and self during the development. That means these

45:54 very rare disorders, woman 2000 and few thousands of times. So it's

46:02 strong and powerful code that that essentially for 99.99% of us too, commands

46:13 the normal development of the tube. the rostrum end of the tube is

46:18 fact that you may have this sustainable of it successfully. You don't have

46:24 the role of the spirit. If is a problem in the carnal

46:30 that's the neural ation process, you have been a difficult formation where the

46:35 cord may exit out of the vertebra . And this is a trainable conversion

46:43 believe. In fact it can even treated inside the look these days.

46:49 it can be detected prenatally treated prenatally or treated postnatal depending again what country

46:58 lives under. What healthcare system I so. So what? So then

47:04 euro two starts becoming more and more . So first it's a it's a

47:10 and then it's a tube. Now stoop is gonna differentiate roster,

47:16 Rose and saffron or your brain. is we're just zooming right here on

47:23 cns portion. Mrs roberts, cephalon grade. Then the frozen stuff along

47:29 the forebrain is going to differentiate in talon, cephalon dying stuff along.

47:35 have the optic vesicles here have the stock and cut and optic vesicles.

47:40 is going to be the formation of retina. Mhm. Then the talents

47:45 following telling us to follow will differentiate two talents of folic hemispheres. Two

47:51 hemispheres you can see at first and . You have this relatively smooth

47:57 And then as you literally to see very clear four bumps. As one

48:03 my favorite structures. It's referred to corporate quadra gemini corpora corporal body corporal

48:12 for gemini gemini, the amount of nucleons. So it's a collection of

48:19 four nuclei eyes when you learn about . The superior and inferior peliculas.

48:23 we study the visual and the auditory . But you can see that these

48:29 are becoming structurally more sophisticated. Of functionally more sophisticated. You have the

48:35 of the cerebral cortex, the hemispheres these two hemispheres we mentioned there is

48:42 of brain function but the two hemispheres communicate to each other through this massive

48:47 bundle. Knowing this corpus callosum and dying differentiates into the thalamus and top

48:56 and hypothalamus bottom underneath thalamus. And internal capsule that has shown there is

49:03 fibers from the follows running into the and from the cortex back into the

49:11 . This is the brain ship You have john cephalon talk, you

49:17 the cortex development nine Sucker Line on of All of Us. Here you

49:23 half the town's text. Him. is where the tectonic is also the

49:31 back of the head of the Roses stick momentum. You have to

49:35 cephalon. So these colors indicate what you want. So Robin cephalon which

49:41 green will form sort of a gallon and medulla oblon, gata and

49:46 You have the spinal point. This the lateral electricals, third,

49:51 fourth ventricle and ventricle known to the floor. So the human brains will

49:58 a lot of salt side and Girona grooves and gyro and ridges. Because

50:04 have neocortex the neocortex is a seat reasoning and condition, condition. This

50:12 how we can not only process the information but we can also join several

50:21 together that we can also think and sometimes right or sing or do whatever

50:32 . And that is a huge advantage a lot of animals potentially cannot

50:40 Live with metaphors, abstractions, more for the same word. Often depending

50:53 the context in which it's given. the four letter word can sound really

51:00 or really bad depending on the contexts . So this all happens in the

51:06 is divided into frontal lobe for major low's occipital lobe, temporal lobe

51:11 the server Valium. Here these are ventricles the three dimensional structures of the

51:17 , two lateral ventricles, the 3rd ventricle going to the spinal canal.

51:22 can see that overall the range of in a gross level is similar to

51:27 rodents, rats and humans. Except you can see fairly smooth as the

51:33 of Iraq but the same structures but different angle you'll still see here.

51:39 the membrane because the cerebellum, the along gotta and the spinal cord ah

51:48 animals will have different looks to their and different structures will be exaggerated depending

51:56 their environments. So for example This is the frontiers, massive olfactory

52:03 , not a very big brain which that most of the things that that

52:07 does it sniffs things around. So can go to Brazos Bend State Park

52:13 any of you know it. Or you've been there, if you haven't

52:17 there, suggests you go on a warm day in a weekend. It's

52:20 about 35 minutes from here, Brazos State Park. I think maybe it's

52:26 or $10, 10 turns in the , your car. If you walk

52:30 these natural swamps and pause and there's of alligators laying around, just watch

52:37 for your pets. They like to small animals. You can go east

52:43 here to National Wildlife Reserve just off 10, I think it's a 45

52:50 from here in an hour. That's probably infested. And I'm just present

52:55 alligators were infested with alligators. It's interesting to think about that. Then

53:01 you have rats, which you can pretty much anywhere you can go

53:06 There's probably a lot of rats living . And then if you look at

53:10 rats, it's like, well they these little factory balls, but they're

53:13 bad baby. So that means rat doing something else. Besides just sniffing

53:18 . It's actually whisking around. That's a lot of rats do is whisk

53:22 to sniff around gators. They don't whiskers. That's what I know,

53:27 haven't seen one whiskers yet. That's fish do like drunk nobody, no

53:33 in this area. Black drum, drum flounder, sea trout speckled

53:40 wonderful fish in this area. Um why am I saying that?

53:46 Well the brains look a little bit depending on what they do with function

53:51 perform. But then you look at cortex. Under cortex will have this

53:55 themselves and parameter software basil Democrats will connectivity. We have certain layer structure

54:03 have certain color structure and if you from an alligator cell, criminal self

54:11 from a rat parameter will sell in cortex functionally. They may be also

54:17 similar to. So the basic the basic units excited for a

54:23 Self basic anatomy, it's there, kind of canonical and non canonical units

54:30 there? It depends on what species looking at, independent what part of

54:37 cortex you're looking at. So you take a little pull out of the

54:42 . Then we refer to as Neocortex is a six layer structure.

54:48 called neocortex is because it's the newest . When we talked about the hippocampus

54:53 we talked about the variety of the cells in the hippocampus. Hippocampus is

55:00 or decks because when we talked about , I said the hippocampus has three

55:05 players, $300 layer with Parameter saw Oreos layer underneath and ready. Ivan

55:12 with optical dendrites of pyramidal saw So hippocampus is a lot of times

55:19 to as our key cortex or archaic . It's archaic because it hasn't caught

55:25 with the neocortex. Neocortex is the , the greatest, the most

55:31 It will summarily brain structure that allows to do really smart things and then

55:37 for people like Putin to threaten the with the nuclear weapons. So but

55:44 Cortex is a six layer structure and it has lamb iness structure. It

55:50 layers and also has calling the It has column because these layers are

55:56 in a column like fashion. You take a plug with neural cortex from

56:00 frontal parietal exhibit all the temporal They will all please see these six

56:06 . These six layers can be very revealed within missile stain. This will

56:11 and again will stay in all neurons glia and it's really good for cyber

56:17 to determine the layers and densities of cells. And we will expose these

56:24 UZ layer four subdivided five and six of cells in the neocortex. We

56:31 that this will stain that will stay all of this house. We know

56:34 ideology stain which will allow us to all of the precise anatomy,

56:41 dendrites processes and very spines and only fraction of neurons which is really important

56:48 understand how neurons are connected to expose anatomy in great detail and here on

56:54 right to have a wider stance which axon specific. So it will only

57:00 the accidents and this reveals how you the axons that are running within this

57:07 running across the layers running across the structure of the cortex cortex. These

57:14 letters, there's a certain organization of that go into the cortex. The

57:19 the loops or inter cortical loops processes and the outputs of cortical outputs is

57:27 to sub cortical areas such as particle outputs, cortical cerebellum, cortical spinal

57:34 . Yeah. Structure depends on function function depends on structure. Chicken or

57:42 egg argument. Both are intricately and are inseparable. What you have in

57:50 columns is you have neurons with similar properties just like you have in the

57:56 neurons with similar response properties to control . We have brainstem neurons that produce

58:04 open afra in the specific nucleus, know, Locusts, Aurilia's So they

58:11 have similar response problems that will have functions, surreal. Use your words

58:17 processing network. These columns and the small level are very small units and

58:25 these small units can communicate to other have more complex, you can have

58:30 areas that get involved and then those areas can get segregated into these very

58:37 small processing local humans parallel processing. have parallel processing in new york or

58:46 force and that's because of the connectivity the new cortex of the loops and

58:51 new products that you have. So you recall it was pavilion brahman that

58:59 missile stained extensively to describe the sight architecture past the brain. And this

59:09 some of the images that he produced some of these drawings. So I

59:17 I'm actually gonna, and the lecture today. When we come back,

59:24 going to discuss association areas and then going to delve into details of specific

59:30 structures. So, and we'll study nerves for cranial nerves. I have

59:40 you lecture notes that I'm prepared here . So you can open them separate

59:48 no slaves here. What I mean this diagram here. This,

59:56 so thank you for being here. luck on the twist tomorrow and

60:02 And then I'll see everyone on

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