| 00:03 | last week we finished talking about Gaba signaling and we started talking about Gaba |
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| 00:11 | And in particular we looked at the a receptor activation of Gaba A. |
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| 00:18 | Gaba neurotransmitter will cause hyper polarization. , I don't know, tropic. |
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| 00:24 | A. Is a channel and chloride come in through this channel inside the |
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| 00:31 | will hyper polarized with plasma membrane. also has binding sides which means that |
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| 00:38 | protein, this receptor protein has binding for substances like ethanol, alcohol, |
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| 00:46 | , barbiturates, the neuro steroids that all be opening up this channel and |
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| 00:53 | lot of the pharmaceutical medications that target channels. They increase the inhibitory tone |
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| 01:03 | the brain and by increasing the inhibitory , increasing the inhibition of the |
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| 01:10 | There's a control or attempt to balance excitation and in position. So this |
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| 01:16 | how you can see glutamate will cause lot of excitation and if there's too |
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| 01:22 | glutamate, we talked about really made toxicity. Then pharmacologically you would want |
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| 01:29 | either reduce glutamate or you would want stimulate the inhibitory neural translation through the |
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| 01:36 | neurotransmitter systems. We then talked about Gaba a receptor is a channel item |
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| 01:44 | tropic channel that allows chloride to flux and Gaba B. Is a member |
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| 01:50 | the tropic receptor that is linked to . Pro dams and these do custodians |
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| 01:57 | linked to potassium channels systematically. They open potassium channels opening the potassium real |
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| 02:06 | for the potassium to leave the cell potassium leaving the south. What will |
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| 02:15 | the cell will become more hyper So both Gaba a influx of chloride |
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| 02:23 | hyper polarization through Gaba B. Protein opening of potassium channel also causes |
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| 02:30 | polarization. The gap of the receptors also linked to calcium channels as you'll |
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| 02:36 | and blocking the calcium channels especially pre in control neurotransmitter release in this |
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| 02:44 | In a very similar fashion that you've when we were talking about the retrograde |
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| 02:49 | the phenomenon signaling. So this is very good diagram and the picture that |
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| 02:58 | everything that we've been studying together and kind of extensive diagram but this diagram |
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| 03:07 | the figure legend here but also has reference where it has been taken |
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| 03:17 | And it also has a really neat and this key and all of the |
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| 03:24 | descriptions you should recognize PSD stands for synaptic density of the screen. You |
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| 03:30 | see that in these excitatory when you glutamate release, post synaptic densities will |
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| 03:36 | excitatory glutamate synopsis and the cielo is MGM. This chapter will cause the |
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| 03:44 | of housing. You also have blue which are Gabba A channels and these |
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| 03:52 | kind of a yellow receptors which is B receptors, potassium channels and |
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| 04:00 | You should be able to understand everything this diagram from what you've learned and |
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| 04:05 | two models. So if we look example into this Gaba ergic synapse here |
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| 04:12 | the left. You have the production Gaba. So these cells will be |
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| 04:17 | G. A. D. God that we talked about where chloride is |
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| 04:22 | sorry when Gaba is released into the cleft it will bind to Gaba A |
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| 04:30 | personality quickly causing hyper polarization, fluoride in and also posting graphically you can |
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| 04:38 | that there are Gabba B receptors, are the winged like G protein coupled |
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| 04:45 | and these G protein coupled receptors. they will do as in previous slide |
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| 04:51 | that they will open up potassium So when they open up the potassium |
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| 04:57 | , potassium will be the flux ng the post synaptic cell the positive charge |
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| 05:05 | will cause further hyper polarization. This the inhibitors and interestingly in latin inhibitory |
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| 05:12 | also contained Gaba B auto receptors. called auto receptors because these synopsis with |
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| 05:21 | terminals their release Gaba. And if Gaba films over here to the pre |
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| 05:29 | side in the case of the ambient will bind to Gaba and Gaba |
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| 05:34 | Boston optically. But if there is Gabba being released precision optical, it |
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| 05:39 | bind to its own gabardine metadata tropic protein coupled receptor which will close both |
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| 05:48 | calcium channels and well basically decrease or off the influx of calcium is you |
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| 05:56 | , calcium influx through these channels is . We send applicability for the secular |
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| 06:03 | and neurotransmitter release. So if basically Gabbert 16 oz so active that the |
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| 06:13 | spills over it will shut down its release and this mechanism is similar than |
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| 06:20 | cannabinoids which will control precinct topically calcium . So well controlled free south africa |
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| 06:27 | gather now what is happening in the synapse And why are these called auto |
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| 06:36 | here? These are called auto receptors Gabba that produces these neurons that produce |
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| 06:43 | Gaba also gather minds to its own synaptic receptors is auto receptors gathered the |
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| 06:50 | that auto receptors and this excited there's on the ride. You have a |
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| 06:55 | production of glutamate in different color black . Black following kills here good and |
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| 07:01 | gets released. It binds the Tampa and NBA receptors in this case and |
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| 07:08 | receptor is highlighted in M. A receptor as we know is a |
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| 07:12 | source of calcium influx all of them receptors. Also this calcium now can |
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| 07:18 | with calcium Fine A. Says. the calcium will bind and activate these |
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| 07:25 | and if you remember those kindnesses cause relations they donate the P. |
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| 07:30 | For growth and so through this intracellular of calcium chinese you can actually activate |
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| 07:39 | B receptors. Do you produce and for me receptors here cost synoptic aly |
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| 07:47 | the activity and if you open potassium possum topically if this will be hyper |
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| 07:55 | . So this glutamate synapse through the influx and campinas mechanisms and Gaba |
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| 08:01 | That is passed synaptic will be regulating post synaptic effect at the level of |
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| 08:08 | membrane because now if there is hyper that's an M. D. A |
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| 08:12 | is not going to be active. . So and there isn't gonna be |
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| 08:17 | of calcium. This is how boston Gabby baby can regulate santa tourism do |
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| 08:25 | couple this afternoon. Also notice that channels these these these calcium channels that |
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| 08:34 | talked about. These voltage gated calcium are located symmetrically on excitatory synapses |
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| 08:41 | And then our gaba B. They're hetero receptors that are located preseason |
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| 08:48 | They're called Gabby hetero receptors which is receptors because they located an excitatory synapses |
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| 08:55 | as you know, excited. Their do not synthesize Gaba. So the |
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| 08:59 | way these hetero receptors can be affected if there is significant amount of Gaba |
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| 09:05 | spills over from the inhibitors synapses on left and then it spills over. |
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| 09:11 | can do two things. It can synaptic quickly activate these Gaba be heavier |
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| 09:18 | that will reduce the influx of calcium will reduce the release of glutamate their |
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| 09:24 | receptors because they're located and excited for . Or this Gabba spillover from the |
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| 09:31 | . Synopsis can affect Gaba B receptor cost synaptic code and by affecting them |
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| 09:39 | optically they will open precaution channels so you protein coupled mechanisms and opening of |
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| 09:46 | potassium channels will cause hyper polarization, optical. So now you can see |
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| 09:53 | if you have inhibitor and excitatory synapses nearby. You can see how Gaba |
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| 10:02 | metabolic tropic and i on a tropic in the in this inhibitory synapse will |
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| 10:08 | hyper polarization here in the south. it can also control prison epic mechanisms |
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| 10:14 | Gaba glutamate release and also the cost hyper polarization in the excited tourist synapses |
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| 10:22 | this medical tropic gap to be So I hope that you're all putting |
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| 10:28 | all together and everything that we've learned far. And typically this is the |
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| 10:34 | that you would see if you stimulated fiber and that fiber produced an excitatory |
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| 10:41 | . And E. P. P. This is very sharp PPE |
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| 10:44 | that you're seeing here that the PSP going to be followed and sculpted by |
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| 10:49 | PS PS. The Gaba A. PSP which is going to be hyper |
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| 10:55 | . And when Gaba a receptor channel activated there's a flux of chloride and |
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| 11:02 | is trying to drive the number and to its equilibrium potential for chloride and |
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| 11:08 | the G protein coupled mechanisms and opening the potassium channel causes further hyper polarization |
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| 11:17 | potassium leaving the cell will try to its equilibrium in the number of potential |
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| 11:22 | its own equilibrium potential value of about 19 results in this case gather. |
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| 11:28 | and that would be about hyper gather is faster because it's ion on |
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| 11:34 | channel rather be is slower because of meadow with tropic their specific blockers for |
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| 11:43 | and Gaba bees or mike you Callum a specific antagonist or blocker for gaba |
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| 11:49 | receptor. And this shows that in here at the bottom number one when |
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| 11:54 | is a stimulation there's a nice P. S. P. And |
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| 11:58 | a smaller PSP that is being sculpted and controlled by immediately activation of |
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| 12:07 | I. Ps PS inhibition here and trace number two. You applied by |
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| 12:12 | and when you apply by cooking this little small excited to response in |
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| 12:18 | absence of inhibition becomes this massive deep , what we call the depot arising |
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| 12:26 | potential. And if you use to drugs to sack with them which is |
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| 12:32 | gather B the receptor antagonist that doesn't got but he doesn't really produce this |
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| 12:44 | response. But instead it kind of the response because it's in the latter |
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| 12:50 | of the I. P. B. So for metabolic tropic signaling |
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| 12:57 | general we're going to very briefly look the structure of the G protein coupled |
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| 13:02 | that are 1234567 uh membrane spanning alpha that the link to G proteins. |
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| 13:14 | if you look at the stable below a variety of metabolic trophic receptors And |
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| 13:19 | we talk about the civil Colin masculinity , there is a variety of subtypes |
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| 13:24 | masculinity receptors and they will slightly have , they will have slightly different |
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| 13:31 | And one and two and three and and five stands for different subtypes of |
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| 13:35 | in the casino code. And glutamate glue ours, there's probably 12 to |
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| 13:43 | Mw ours now that have been Gaba gaba B receptor one, Gaba |
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| 13:51 | receptor to serotonin five HT one A c d alpha D beta E F |
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| 13:58 | HT 25. HT four. These different subtypes but they're all g protein |
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| 14:05 | neurotransmitter receptors, dopamine norepinephrine. We comparing north enough from alpha versus north |
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| 14:14 | alpha beta or alpha and beta, is linked to g stimulatory protein |
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| 14:20 | alpha linked to g inhibitory profile form protein Catelyn we didn't talk about in |
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| 14:27 | kingdom. Cannabinoids CB one and CB receptors are both medical tropics. G |
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| 14:32 | coupled receptors and a TB. That molecule will bind to a dentist and |
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| 14:40 | the denison receptor A one, A , A two, B A three |
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| 14:45 | also P two Y type of So remember the A T. P |
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| 14:50 | an energy molecule but it is also neurotransmitter and denison which is the core |
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| 14:56 | http contributes and is also a neurotransmitter contributes to the control of the present |
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| 15:04 | neural transmission and maybe we'll get a to review it quickly next lecture. |
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| 15:11 | these are our transmitter gated channels that talked about which are different placido colon |
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| 15:18 | . These are the two still Killeen binding sites. Each one of these |
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| 15:24 | will have four trans membrane segments and shows that there is a similarity in |
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| 15:32 | structure between receptors that are ion a South versus acetylcholine, You can see |
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| 15:41 | will all have a similar structure and through M4 in this case it's segments |
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| 15:50 | each sub unit and that they will a collection of five of these |
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| 15:57 | Now you can have different combinations of subunits. So for example, if |
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| 16:03 | look at Gaba receptor subunits, there's and there's one through six different subtypes |
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| 16:10 | the alpha subunit. So when these come together you may have to alpha |
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| 16:16 | this case it's acetylcholine molecule, the receptor channel. But it would be |
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| 16:22 | in other receptor channels like two alpha gamma one beta one delta. You |
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| 16:28 | have two alpha to beta one two alpha to beta one delta. |
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| 16:35 | now have, if you look at A, you have at least six |
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| 16:39 | , at least four betas, at four gammas roll and so on. |
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| 16:44 | how many combinations of different subtypes of A receptors? You could potentially |
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| 16:53 | It's very, very diverse. And by having this slightly different composition of |
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| 17:00 | sub units or the alpha, beta and gamma will influence the kinetics in |
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| 17:06 | function of these receptor channels. So of the things that are on the |
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| 17:12 | here are the things that will be for the examining the quiz. So |
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| 17:16 | example, acetylcholine nicotine, it must agonist nicotine musk urine antagonist security. |
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| 17:23 | has to know that norepinephrine and what need to know for norepinephrine. We |
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| 17:28 | talk about the agonist and antagonist but did talk about the alpha and beta |
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| 17:33 | functions. You know the difference is you have one pushing cyclic GMP production |
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| 17:41 | is up to another one. Pulling receptor from producing more cycling can be |
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| 17:48 | . We talked about ample and an . D. A. Agonists and |
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| 17:52 | and an M. D. That's easy antagonists that CN Q. |
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| 17:56 | . And a P. Five or PV. So you should know this |
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| 18:00 | we talked about a little lethargic signaling depth. We talked about the AMP |
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| 18:06 | . And an M. B. . I. V. Curves where |
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| 18:09 | had a linear curve and NBA nonlinear . And we discussed what happens to |
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| 18:14 | via curved in the presence of A . D. Gamma gamma A gamma |
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| 18:21 | . We know that natural endogenous agonists but you also have these chemicals agonists |
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| 18:28 | we really kind of just highlighted by organism antagonists for Gaba a risk |
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| 18:35 | So just know that YaBA A. eye on a tropic. It conducts |
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| 18:40 | Gaba B. Is measurable tropic and linked to the opening of the percussion |
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| 18:46 | And that if you blog Abba With bike UK Poland then excitation is |
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| 18:51 | . Then it can be very prolonged sustained in the same synapses that otherwise |
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| 18:57 | have gone to A. In the ATP receptor subtypes as p. two |
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| 19:03 | and a type agonist for the P X type receptors http which is a |
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| 19:10 | agonist or for the A type for and receptors is in a denizen. |
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| 19:16 | a denizen uh will activate the dynamism . Now the antagonist for a denizen |
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| 19:25 | caffeine. That's something that most of probably 90 plus percent consumed every day |
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| 19:32 | we do that in the morning because of denison, a tie perceptive by |
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| 19:40 | molecules reduces glutamate release priests in africa the metabolic tropic signaling. So dennison |
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| 19:48 | glutamate release and dennison levels go up the evening and at night and there |
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| 19:55 | less of glutamate release in the I'm not saying there's none the less |
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| 20:01 | then the denison levels typically go down the morning and glutamate release increases. |
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| 20:06 | dennison controls the medical tropic mechanism prison algorithm it released, it reduces it |
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| 20:14 | caffeine does caffeine is an antagonist of of Dennis and receptor. And because |
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| 20:20 | denison reduces glutamate caffeine actually increases recently and that's part of the waking up |
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| 20:30 | having a cup of coffee or tea anything that contains caffeine in it. |
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| 20:41 | maybe it's partly a placebo effect but I think that it helps us wake |
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| 20:46 | our brains get engaged and I think definitely the neurochemistry behind it that you |
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| 20:52 | are aware of. Okay, so concludes our neural transmission section and we're |
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| 21:00 | going to move into the exciting this exciting world, the macro view |
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| 21:09 | the brain, which is great time overview some of the things that we |
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| 21:17 | in the first section, Some of structures that we mentioned in the first |
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| 21:21 | of this course and as we look some of the gross anatomy, structure |
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| 21:29 | function of the brain parts and talked little bit about the development them. |
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| 21:38 | think having a background ah in the section and having all of this |
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| 21:45 | you are going to be very well into understanding the major sensory and somatic |
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| 21:52 | systems in the brain and the circuits the functions in these circuits that we |
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| 21:58 | talk about in the next uh I we have about 11 lectures, we're |
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| 22:04 | lucky. We are over the hump the sports more than halfway through in |
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| 22:10 | the material. Congratulations, you are one centimeter. This is the scale |
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| 22:16 | on the left and this is the brain. Yeah, it's about one |
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| 22:20 | . This is to scale on the video, the rabbit brain. A |
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| 22:24 | bigger cat brain, not so A few cents a centimeter. Shoot |
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| 22:27 | from kinds of brain. Human dolphin brains. If we were to |
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| 22:33 | to virologists, we were too believe size is all that matters and the |
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| 22:41 | the size of the organ, the its performance and computational power uh, |
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| 22:50 | then obviously developments have larger brains relative to humans and they should be smarter |
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| 22:58 | us and should be on top of food chain. But this is not |
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| 23:04 | scale on the ride. And it's as you can see how some of |
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| 23:09 | brains are relatively smooth. They don't a lot of these imaginations and the |
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| 23:14 | order species, the higher you go the more and more complex these imaginations |
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| 23:19 | actually in the higher order species, in non human primates and other forces |
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| 23:27 | . Whenever you talk about anatomy the location of anatomical structures, we |
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| 23:32 | to talk about some of the basic . You don't have to talk about |
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| 23:39 | . Some of the terms that we in describing where the structures are located |
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| 23:45 | planes, you already know dorsal which the back Of the spinal cord. |
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| 23:51 | know, the sensor information comes in . And the trouble is the front |
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| 23:55 | the spinal cord. Notice that in here and the rat there is not |
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| 24:00 | bent between the brain and the spinal . Between humans is bent would be |
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| 24:05 | 90° because we're standing up on two . This is the interior or |
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| 24:11 | All this is the posterior card or in the middle is medial, anything |
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| 24:16 | the side is lateral. There are major planes or cuts that we perform |
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| 24:24 | the brain ross told to coddle. you're performing it like this slicing the |
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| 24:29 | in this direction, it's called mid . This is the horizontal plane of |
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| 24:34 | slices and this is corona lil sections the brain of corona slices through the |
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| 24:39 | . And that's important because for we can look at the brain |
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| 24:45 | for example, the entire brain structures have been stained with missiles stained. |
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| 24:51 | we can read the instructions sisters it's in the occipital lobe, or |
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| 24:55 | in the parietal lobe. It's this coordinates, and we're going to understand |
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| 25:00 | structure we're looking at. It's very to us. If somebody said, |
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| 25:06 | know when you talk to directing well, you know, it's the |
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| 25:10 | over there and then you have to a right and if you locate |
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| 25:14 | and that's where you're gonna look to left and you should be able to |
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| 25:18 | the classroom we're looking at. So is the instructions that we get is |
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| 25:22 | anonymous, you're looking at mythological cut through So, and so we're |
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| 25:28 | okay, well, I know which directly major parts of the brains. |
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| 25:34 | re brooms are a ballot and brainstem cord. And this is an exaggerated |
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| 25:39 | , which allows you to have an view from the mid line, all |
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| 25:42 | way to the lateral and medial collateral of the brain. Now, all |
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| 25:49 | the information and the in the the and cerebral hemispheres is contra lateral sensory |
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| 26:00 | motor information. That means that all the sensor information actually from the body |
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| 26:05 | face. It comes in to the that information travels from collateral with all |
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| 26:10 | the output. Motor commands on my hemisphere will command my left side of |
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| 26:16 | body, and left hemisphere will control lot of right right side of the |
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| 26:22 | . The cerebellum is different. Cerebellum involved in a lot of the control |
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| 26:26 | movement, but sarah balham right here green in the back of the |
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| 26:31 | The projections are absolute lateral, meaning they control the movement on the same |
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| 26:38 | of the bridge and it's a little different. Learn more democracy about |
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| 26:42 | View. Brain stem is where you a lot of the cerebro cerebellum to |
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| 26:50 | cerebrum to sarah balham and from sarah Arabella cerebral interconnections of these two structures |
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| 26:57 | very tightly interconnected. And especially the of this arm balance is very important |
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| 27:03 | the motion control and learning the motion or what we call procedural memory such |
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| 27:12 | riding a bicycle, which is very to forget what you learned and it's |
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| 27:17 | in the structure like cerebellum brainstem right , brainstem is responsible for vital body |
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| 27:25 | , breathing, consciousness, heartbeat, of body temperature. So this is |
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| 27:32 | controlled release. Very interesting nuclear that located here in brain stomach. We'll |
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| 27:37 | about some of the next couple of , we have peripheral nervous system and |
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| 27:44 | don't talk much about the peripheral nervous . Uh it's motor and sensory, |
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| 27:51 | everything skin joints and muscles that we talked about a little bit about the |
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| 27:55 | muscular junction. We don't get to about the autonomic nervous system, the |
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| 28:02 | system that is present and the sierra internal organs, blood vessels and glands |
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| 28:10 | the autonomic nervous system and the complexity the autonomic nervous system and the |
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| 28:16 | That's a terek for example, nervous is just as complex potential. |
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| 28:25 | Uh And it is a very interesting field of study as well. The |
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| 28:32 | is protected, it is surrounded by protected the ninjas. He's protected |
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| 28:39 | There are three of them. The mater which is the hard mother, |
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| 28:45 | arachnoid, this spider like membrane of underneath the dura mater and the PM |
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| 28:52 | and the general mother number. And lays right on the surface of the |
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| 28:59 | great and different societies that the dura is really really tough. It's very |
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| 29:06 | to penetrate. So the brain already protected by the skull. It's a |
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| 29:11 | , it's hard to crack and break bone. It's very hard and I |
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| 29:16 | that bone cracks or breaks underneath. is this really thick mater. Okay |
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| 29:26 | the thingies and this meninges is quite to penetrate. You cannot just poke |
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| 29:32 | it with a finger. I actually a scalpel to cut through duro |
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| 29:38 | So it's very very thick, thick rather resilient thingies on the surface right |
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| 29:48 | the skull. Now, do you ? We talked about the trepidations. |
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| 29:55 | prepper nations and he said, well are some of the reasons? Of |
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| 29:58 | , pressure build up in the brain build up in the brain. Pain |
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| 30:02 | up in the brain. One of fluids that can build up in the |
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| 30:07 | . As you can see here, have the vasculature that's going through this |
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| 30:11 | space and penetrating into the brain tissue the microbe assholes. But if there |
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| 30:16 | a rupture of the broad, thus here, you may experience what is |
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| 30:22 | a subdural hematoma where there's going to a coagulation of blood and hardening these |
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| 30:31 | blood pools essentially underneath the dura, E. And the only way that |
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| 30:38 | can clean up the wound is to a trip to a nation and the |
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| 30:45 | and make a small opening in the and clear up and clean up the |
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| 30:52 | and and potentially maybe even patch it or put something in this as far |
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| 30:58 | the ancient forms of medicine available at time. So these are the three |
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| 31:04 | energies and the environment within them. fluid, This is cerebrospinal fluid and |
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| 31:11 | when the brain shakes, the brain protected by the ninjas and by the |
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| 31:16 | this environment the fluid, the cerebral fluid or CSF super spinal fluid is |
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| 31:26 | in these areas? The forward in ventricles lateral ventricles here that are |
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| 31:33 | ventricles in the brain. There are and they contain a lot of fluid |
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| 31:37 | that fluid gets constantly refraction produced and generate new, completely turned over your |
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| 31:44 | spinal fluid over the day and the spinal fluid is circulating and to the |
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| 31:53 | , ventricular system and the brain going the sort of paranoid space and is |
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| 31:58 | drained. Now this is another reason you would potentially have brain entrepreneur nations |
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| 32:07 | a condition that happens during development is hydrocephalus. Water in the brain. |
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| 32:13 | there is too much of the fluid is being produced, let's say the |
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| 32:17 | Alexis's overproducing the fluid or the drainage the fluid is not proper from the |
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| 32:25 | ins and subdural spaces. And what then is there can be a build |
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| 32:32 | of fluid in the ventricles and as fluid collects in the ventricles. And |
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| 32:37 | it happens during early development such as case with hydrocephalus, the ventricles are |
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| 32:44 | going to start pushing on the brain and the surrounding brain tissue and that |
|
| 32:49 | tissue is going to start pushing on skull, the skull during the first |
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| 32:54 | years of life, especially his soft the skull plates have not used |
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| 33:01 | And so you have the ability to move and reshape the skull. And |
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| 33:07 | if there is abnormal balloon like formation the ventral course is going to we |
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| 33:13 | the soft tissue of the brain and the hard skull tissue and that's not |
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| 33:21 | . And so the only way to rid of these fluids is to drain |
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| 33:25 | . And in modern days you can the tube into the ventricles and you |
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| 33:32 | drain the fluids into the intra peritoneal here and you can have these fluids |
|
| 33:40 | during the development of the monitor. in the ancient prehistoric times that is |
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| 33:46 | likely that they saw a child developing abnormal head. And maybe they even |
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| 33:53 | there are fluids or something like But they would probably perform a |
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| 33:57 | entrepreneur nation and entrepreneur nation would be in order to drain the fluids and |
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| 34:04 | they're accumulating and drain them again. , so this is the formation of |
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| 34:11 | central nervous system and how the central system comes about the process of no |
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| 34:20 | . So this primordial state, you you have the three types of |
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| 34:26 | The end of the term the meso and the actor. The M dot |
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| 34:34 | becomes a lining of internal form. an investor mas a term in the |
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| 34:42 | becomes skeleton, bones and muscles. the act a damn becomes nervous system |
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| 34:51 | skin to skin cells actually have the pra morelia ah uh stem like similarities |
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| 35:05 | would say skin cells with neurons with cells. And then first you have |
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| 35:12 | neural plate formation here. If you these three structures, you have this |
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| 35:17 | play and then you have the formation the neural form. You have the |
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| 35:23 | of the girl falls. These false closing out and the form the neural |
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| 35:32 | here surrounded by so am I. over here and on top of that |
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| 35:39 | ceo neural crushed. So what happens essentially this plate falls and produces the |
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| 35:49 | and this dude from ross tral all way to the Qatar land and then |
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| 35:54 | have the closing of the studio. my rights that are shown here become |
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| 36:01 | column, scalpel, uh muscles, vertebral column and the projections of this |
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| 36:10 | Muslims. In this process of formation the neural tube is called no relation |
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| 36:19 | general. If you think about the brains are very complex. We |
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| 36:24 | about billions of cells and trillions of and one of the brain is |
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| 36:31 | it is self assembling into this very structure and in general we don't have |
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| 36:38 | many abnormalities and developmental abnormalities. They're one in 1000 maybe during the |
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| 36:46 | But they do have and if they related to the tube formation obviously developmental |
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| 36:56 | and if there is an effect on roster all side of this no relation |
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| 37:02 | and do formations somehow improper holding on rostrum side that can result of insufferably |
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| 37:12 | basically is not having the cerebrum ah it's not sustainable and if there's problems |
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| 37:23 | the cardinal and of the neural tune this no relation process given I haven't |
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| 37:31 | a bifida. So it's fine or spinal cord will be sticking out abnormally |
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| 37:38 | of being properly surrounded by the vertebral which is the sodomites. And this |
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| 37:44 | a irreparable problem with the surgery but is still significant treatable. So once |
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| 37:53 | have this neural tube, your harvest rel and right here we're gonna zoom |
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| 38:00 | to the rasta rel end of this too, which is further subdivided into |
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| 38:06 | pros and suffering or the forebrain. suffering on the membrane or rum and |
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| 38:11 | for the hind brain. From here the spinal forwards. The forebrain further |
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| 38:21 | the first you have no relation Then you have the formation of the |
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| 38:28 | vesicles. Those primary bicycles differentiated secondary and and with subsequent development you have |
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| 38:37 | and more specific differentiation, structural differentiation these different three regions, forebrain, |
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| 38:45 | and hind brain. Here you see four brains subdivided into talents of our |
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| 38:53 | coast because tell himself along, becomes cortex this is diana cephalon we'll see |
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| 39:02 | diet cephalon becomes stalinists and hypothalamus. are the optic classic als of the |
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| 39:09 | of the stock here coming off Uh stop Coming off a year of |
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| 39:18 | four brand. And this is where retina there's going to forms off the |
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| 39:25 | . That's why everybody that studies optometry ophthalmology is also a neuroscientist because recognized |
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| 39:32 | part of the central nervous system, you have the further differentiation of selling |
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| 39:40 | . So talents a folic hemisphere has the two cerebral hemispheres. And as |
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| 39:45 | can see that with this differentiation you more and more of the refinement, |
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| 39:52 | more complex structure and architecture emerging in brain in the mid brain. You |
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| 39:58 | the formation of these four nuclei that called corporate quadra gemini. Again, |
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| 40:05 | lot of neuron anatomical anatomical terms are on latin. But you can decipher |
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| 40:15 | everything corpora, corpora, body For gemini gemini nuclei sides, the |
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| 40:28 | of the four sides. So where can translate it all now you can |
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| 40:33 | these are the arctic cups that's going be the formation of the retina and |
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| 40:38 | optic nerve that preserve of the The cerebral hemispheres tell himself along the |
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| 40:45 | cephalon, subdivided into the thalamus on the hypothalamus at the bottom. You |
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| 40:53 | see the formation of these lateral ventricles , the third country floor in the |
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| 40:58 | , the fourth ventricle going down and spinal canal for the spinal cord corpus |
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| 41:05 | . That is shown here is the of the major attract and the fibers |
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| 41:11 | will be interconnecting the two hemispheres. you know that there's a lateralization of |
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| 41:17 | brain function. There is not only localization of specific brain function but there's |
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| 41:22 | lateralization of the brain function because when talk about Broca's area and when we |
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| 41:28 | about Bernie Kosar was on the left of the brain. To the speech |
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| 41:33 | and speech areas will be dominated by left side of the brain. Does |
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| 41:37 | mean that the right side of the is not informed of what's left the |
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| 41:43 | are doing. And there is a of information between the two hemispheres through |
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| 41:48 | major interconnecting fiber bridge called the corpus from the thalamus. There's other types |
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| 41:57 | fibers that are referred to as internal and those internal capsules are the white |
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| 42:02 | , the myelin ated neuron fibers that go from the columns into the cortex |
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| 42:08 | actually from the cortex back into the . So there is inter connectivity between |
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| 42:13 | sub cortical structures that we call bad like almost in contra thomas between cortex |
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| 42:20 | those structures back and forth and also the cerebral hemispheres through the the corpus |
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| 42:27 | bridge. So this is don doesn't long romp and suffering behind brain and |
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| 42:34 | spinal cord. Again, the talents the line becomes the cortex uh Palomas |
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| 42:40 | can see on top there is a of dying cephalon thalamus. Underneath this |
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| 42:45 | of thalamus the membrane differentiates and attacked and to give momentum to detect um |
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| 42:53 | where we just saw the structures here the dorsal side of mine spectrum is |
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| 43:00 | the roof. So protect yourself from rain on the dorsal side? How |
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| 43:05 | can remember and take amount them. have a serb alan here emerging from |
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| 43:09 | roman suffer long hind brain and pause the dual oblon gata all are emerging |
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| 43:16 | roman and finally in the yellow. have a spinal form so the ventricular |
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| 43:22 | would drown through these lateral ventricles and left and right hemisphere and the third |
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| 43:28 | . Then you have the fourth cerebral aqueduct and the spinal canal supplying |
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| 43:35 | the spinal fluid all the way and the bottom of the spinal cord by |
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| 43:43 | by the very um sequel vertebra. you can see that the brain has |
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| 43:52 | side and it has gyre I and side are the grooves and gyro are |
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| 43:58 | region's religious cortex is the seat of and cognition. So a lot of |
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| 44:10 | perceptions, reasoning um sensory modalities, sensory modalities together. This is all |
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| 44:27 | in the cortex which has major frontal lobe, parietal lobes separated by |
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| 44:33 | sulcus a big cool. You have occipital lobe of the temporal lobe. |
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| 44:41 | is the three dimensional structure of the of the brain. The lateral |
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| 44:46 | the third, the fourth ventricle was canal. A lot of similarities on |
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| 44:51 | gross level between right in the human of course of course of course human |
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| 45:00 | a lot more conflicts that contain a more south side and joy ride. |
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| 45:06 | But in general you'll see the ventricular 1st and 2nd and the 3rd and |
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| 45:12 | ventricles. You'll see the cerebellum. the pawns armadillo of long gotta all |
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| 45:18 | recognizable in many different species. Higher lower order species. Neocortex is only |
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| 45:28 | in mammals. The neocortex is this cephalon that becomes a telling stuff along |
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| 45:36 | here becomes telling symbolic hemispheres becomes cerebral , becomes vortex. Neocortex is the |
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| 45:48 | surface of the cortex. It's a cortex. It's new in the sense |
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| 45:55 | evolution. That's what Neo stands It's the most sophisticated and the latest |
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| 46:02 | structure and this human and adam a models. And what's interesting is if |
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| 46:11 | took a piece of neocortex from an by the way, look at these |
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| 46:16 | the frontier. Alligator has these huge bulbs because that's what gators do around |
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| 46:23 | . They swim around the bayous and swarms. By the way you can |
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| 46:28 | can see so many alligators if you're here, you probably know if you're |
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| 46:35 | from here, Brazos Bend State Park 35 minutes. 40 minutes from the |
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| 46:42 | the big city. He has incredible of alligators and you can observe them |
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| 46:49 | in the sun. Have to be when you walk your pets around there |
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| 46:53 | they they may snap them on a . Natural wildlife preserve heading east Beaumont |
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| 47:04 | to in large populations of alligators. have these massive olfactory balls because that's |
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| 47:12 | they do they swap around and they around this smell the food. They |
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| 47:20 | incredible sense of smell. You can on the rats they have these very |
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| 47:26 | olfactory bulbs but there's a factory balls the rat and the road of which |
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| 47:31 | very important. The rats are We'll have to go to Brazos Bend |
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| 47:36 | Park, perhaps are everywhere plenty of Houston. They also have a factor |
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| 47:44 | . You saw a factory balls are as big, you can see as |
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| 47:48 | are an alligator. So you have different variations in animal structures but interesting |
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| 47:54 | some canonical structures that are preserved canonical , meaning that if you want to |
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| 47:59 | a piece of neocortex, an alligator or a matter of fact from |
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| 48:03 | you would have these primal cells with optical dendrites and basil gun rights. |
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| 48:07 | will have a certain six layer structure your vortex is a six layer structure |
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| 48:12 | will be replicable and would be founded and rats and as you can see |
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| 48:18 | , there is this canonical for repeatable and structures and even the shapes of |
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| 48:26 | styles and anatomical arrangements in the new cortex. Of course there's different levels |
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| 48:32 | processing and complexity in these animals. there are some very recognizable structures that |
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| 48:38 | will find across different species. So last slide that I will very briefly |
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| 48:45 | to is actually shows the neocortex is six layer structure. The most superficial |
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| 48:51 | or the skull is number one, deepest layers. # six. There |
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| 48:56 | a column of connectivity and that means the selves that are arranged themselves with |
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| 49:04 | in the neocortex and Weigert stain is stain that will stay in axons and |
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| 49:08 | can see how their bundles of axons what is called the column in the |
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| 49:15 | . This is a missile statement you know will stain all of the cells |
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| 49:19 | this is a gold. The statement stay in precisely the anatomy of a |
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| 49:23 | of the cells only. This is stain that shows all of the six |
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| 49:29 | cortical layers. The thickness of neocortex vary from frontal cortex to occipital cortex |
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| 49:37 | bridal cortex or motor cortex. With overall this canonical structure and this column |
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| 49:46 | well as laminar. So the column you have columns and two connected columns |
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| 49:51 | south and the neocortex and laminar as have these layers and the columns communicate |
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| 49:58 | adjacent columns through the slab on earth connections. So when we come back |
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| 50:04 | will look at greater detail at neocortex continue talking about the development and going |
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| 50:11 | more precise detail from different brain different brain areas and also studying the |
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| 50:19 | nerves and the great detail as So thank you very much for joining |
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| 50:25 | online today, this will conclude our today. I will see everyone at |
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| 50:31 | next lecture in person and please stand to get the information about the quiz |
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| 50:37 | soon as I have it, I inform everyone in class and I will |
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| 50:44 | everyone on thursday. Thank you and care |
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