| 00:01 | Welcome Thio Neuroscience Lecture. Two very review of some of the key |
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| 00:07 | Historical pre historical time events that led the development off the modern day in |
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| 00:16 | science and what you see here. you recall, it's not a weapon |
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| 00:22 | rather surgical tool to perform brain Trumper that were used thio open up the |
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| 00:30 | to gain access into the brains during times. An important person was |
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| 00:38 | who invented the treatment of classifications or and also recognize the distant. The |
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| 00:45 | of CNS injury, in other in the fact or an injury to |
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| 00:50 | brain will have an effect on ah and a distal part of the |
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| 00:54 | such as a hand or, lower extremity. Nonetheless, Egyptians consider |
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| 01:03 | is the most important organ until the Times, who considers the brain as |
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| 01:10 | most important organ in the body and , yes, Spear has the development |
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| 01:18 | modern medicine. During Renaissance Times, addressed Vesalius that questions ah lot of |
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| 01:28 | descriptions that were developed during the Middle . He performs a lot off surgeries |
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| 01:33 | the brain's opens up the brain, these very large ventricles that are filled |
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| 01:38 | fluid and believes that there is some of ventricular localization of the brain function |
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| 01:45 | which through the fluids it controls the of the body. He also recognizes |
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| 01:52 | difference between the gray and white matter describes the great matters more spongy and |
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| 02:02 | . Therefore, maybe more absorptive and lending itself to learn it. Renee |
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| 02:08 | card initiates the Western origins off the . Body theory propagates them, and |
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| 02:17 | idea here is that we communicate with outside world and the spiritually part of |
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| 02:23 | outside world on our understanding off, and spiritually through the visual system that |
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| 02:31 | with the pineal gland and from there fluid, mechanical model moves our arms |
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| 02:39 | response in our bodies. So the thing that he is responsible for is |
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| 02:48 | he originated the whole reflects theory that behaviors are reflexive and do not require |
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| 02:54 | lot of cognitive engagement. So finally guitar go some stands for, I |
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| 03:03 | . Therefore, I am not so phrase by related card. Where did |
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| 03:08 | go? Vonnie, using electric discovers that nerves when he shocks |
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| 03:17 | muscle of frogs muscle going into the going into a muscle or frogs |
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| 03:23 | They contract. He describes the nerves electrical wires and not as water pipes |
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| 03:35 | channels. Nerves can generate electricity reviewed major parts of the C. N |
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| 03:41 | the lobes, frontal parietal, temporal cerebellum, brainstem and spinal cord |
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| 03:47 | spinal cord. You have all of spinal nerves going into the periphery, |
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| 03:52 | also you have mesen, Terek Nervous . That sub serves all of the |
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| 03:56 | organs. Most of our studies will on the spinal cord connections to the |
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| 04:02 | as well as CNN s, a room, the brain and cerebellum brainstem |
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| 04:11 | the spinal cord. We discuss that of the sensor information below the neck |
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| 04:18 | into the spinal cord. So information the legs from the arms from the |
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| 04:26 | from the shoulders goes into the spinal . And not all of that sensor |
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| 04:31 | . We're just pressure. Touch, , pain itch. It gets communicated |
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| 04:39 | the sensor and nerve five verse that the dorsal part, the back part |
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| 04:45 | the spinal cord, through the dorsal ganglion cells and from the spinal |
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| 04:51 | the nerves and motor neurons that put output come out and innovate here in |
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| 04:58 | shown muscles, fibers that are now for either relaxing or contracting these muscle |
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| 05:06 | . Okay, so there's 31 pairs spinal nerves that different likes of the |
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| 05:13 | cord sub serving the entire body from neck down through all of this sensory |
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| 05:18 | inputs coming in and motor ventral So these air after parents going into |
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| 05:25 | spinal cord and these air if parents out of the spinal cord into the |
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| 05:30 | to move the muscles and execute the commands that may have been initiated |
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| 05:37 | but they all come from spinal Likewise, a reflexive behavior will be |
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| 05:42 | by spinal cord fibers and reflects arch , the level off the spinal cord |
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| 05:48 | will discuss later in the course. when we came to foreign ologists, |
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| 05:54 | said that foreign ologists started really We understand that nurse produce electricity, |
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| 06:03 | how can we understand what our different of the brain responsible for this is |
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| 06:09 | localization of specific brain functions. Chronologies approach led by France, Joseph Gal |
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| 06:18 | thio. Measure the outside off the , the bumps and indentations and the |
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| 06:26 | of sort of the skull in different to delineate different parts of the skull |
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| 06:33 | , according to them, the brain the organ of the mind. The |
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| 06:38 | is composed of multiple distinct innate so they're saying that the mind has |
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| 06:45 | distinct faculties, and then each faculty have a separate seat or separate location |
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| 06:52 | separate organ or nucleus in the And they said that they must have |
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| 06:57 | least 35. So they placed 35 zones on the skull that they thought |
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| 07:03 | to these 35 different organs or nuclei the brain. Their argument was the |
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| 07:11 | of an organ. Other things being is a measure of its power. |
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| 07:16 | like the muscle, the more you the memorial muscle, gross memorial muscle |
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| 07:22 | and grows and grows and grows so they suggested that those parts of |
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| 07:27 | brain that arm or active will grow the development. The skulls air |
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| 07:34 | and so it's easy to imagine and that. Okay, that's that's when |
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| 07:39 | skulls would shape during the development around brain tissue, and the parts of |
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| 07:45 | nuclear that were active would be so that they will be enlarged. And |
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| 07:50 | would cause a notable change on the of the skull and that the shape |
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| 07:57 | the brain is determined by the development these organs and that the skull takes |
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| 08:05 | shape from the brain and therefore the can be right as an accurate |
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| 08:12 | Ah, psychological attitudes and tendencies. they said that basically, if you |
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| 08:21 | this part of the skull, let's hypothetically number 20 that's enlarged and the |
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| 08:27 | ologists would measure the size and the and all of this thing that number |
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| 08:31 | is enlarged. They would say that are very generous person as a innate |
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| 08:41 | psychological, I'd aptitude because you have five here in the front. You |
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| 08:49 | aggressive. Okay, so this is Fern ologists did, and they were |
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| 08:57 | because you cannot read from the surface the skull just like you cannot judge |
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| 09:06 | book by its cover. The surface the skull will tell you things that |
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| 09:14 | really bad, such as hydrocephalus, the skull is so large that you |
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| 09:18 | to do an opening in the So just equivalent interpretation. The modern |
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| 09:25 | to drain the fluid or the blood so on, so they were |
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| 09:31 | But this is a cover of the Phonological Journal in 18 48. Hot |
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| 09:37 | the presses, Get your copy today 48. Where is it that your |
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| 09:45 | , Liz. How is that bump your left ear doing? Maybe you |
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| 09:51 | to exercise that aptitude or that psychological tendencies and improve the shape of your |
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| 10:03 | in yourself. Paul Broca is the that discovers an area here that's being |
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| 10:13 | in this area is now called. area is located here in the frontal |
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| 10:18 | , right next to the motor which initiates a motor commands and Broca's |
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| 10:25 | . Damage to Broca's area causes expressive , which is basically difficulty in conveying |
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| 10:31 | through speech or writing. The patient what he wants but cannot find the |
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| 10:37 | he needs. And that's the damage this area. So Dr Paul Broke |
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| 10:41 | collected enough brains in the 19th century the damage in the same location and |
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| 10:48 | same problem. Expressive aphasia to delineate is called the Broca's area. |
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| 10:56 | it was discovered damaged a different part the brain located here on the cusp |
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| 11:02 | the temporal parietal lobe called vernick ous . Damage to Wernicke s area would |
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| 11:11 | a receptive aphasia, which involves difficulty , spoken or written language. So |
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| 11:16 | patient here is divorce or sees the but cannot make sense of the |
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| 11:22 | We can speak of gay, but cannot understand, receive receptive if Asian |
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| 11:30 | or amnesia aphasia the least severe form aphasia is difficulty in using the correct |
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| 11:36 | for particular objects. People, places events in global aphasia is severe and |
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| 11:44 | damage thio language areas of the brain thes language areas from Broca's to vernick |
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| 11:51 | to other areas in the temporal lobe almost all language function would be lost |
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| 11:59 | the comprehension and expression and then global Asia patients cannot speak or understand speech |
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| 12:07 | cannot read or write. So, , these four different conditions expressive, |
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| 12:14 | phenomenon or amnesia. If Asia and aff Asia, those will show up |
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| 12:20 | the test and broke this area in Gus area, today's gauge is probably |
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| 12:27 | of the most famous characters in He was packing the explosives with this |
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| 12:36 | tool rod metal rod in 18 48 New England was exploding through the mountains |
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| 12:48 | , laying down the railroads and Gates was charged off backing the |
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| 12:55 | When I accidentally they went off and rod penetrated through the bottom of this |
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| 13:02 | , exited out in the front of head, causing massive damage to the |
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| 13:08 | part of his brain. The frontal pennies gauge returned to ask for his |
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| 13:15 | back. It didn't get it He was very aggressive. He was |
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| 13:20 | executive functions. Although you could have one. I it's still seen another |
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| 13:25 | , and that suggested that damage that's but maybe even is larger. Damage |
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| 13:32 | these parts of the brain may not that much of the primary functions, |
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| 13:37 | as the ability thio listen, see smell, field walk talk but a |
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| 13:46 | function and an executive function. He very aggressive. He was uncontrollable in |
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| 13:54 | instances, but he has lived a life after subsequently. When we started |
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| 14:01 | from examples of broke US areas of Azarias, an example of finance gauge |
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| 14:08 | it's not that once you have damage the brain, that all of the |
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| 14:13 | are affected equally, but only certain are affected, so there is localization |
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| 14:19 | function. There is localization of expressing off listening and understanding words, sequences |
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| 14:27 | , performing cognitive and executive functions properly controlling your temporal emotions. All of |
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| 14:35 | have their own specific areas localized in brain, localized the specific brain structures |
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| 14:42 | interconnected brain structures forming these systems. , lot of our understanding off more |
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| 14:50 | connectivity and function of the brain came cortical stimulation studies as well. Charles |
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| 14:58 | deserves a mention because he was observing behavior in the Galapagos Silence near the |
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| 15:08 | and was responsible for the theory of observing evolution of behavioral trades and how |
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| 15:17 | off structure corresponds to certain environments and of the behavioral traits that are simulated |
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| 15:28 | and others that are distinct and a of it depends on their environment depends |
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| 15:33 | the micro and macro environments and micro macro climates. It depends where the |
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| 15:41 | lives and what systems the animal is . So in monkey brains, a |
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| 15:48 | of the space is dedicated to the areas, and that's because non human |
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| 15:55 | as well as humans, rely a on visual perception or a lot of |
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| 16:02 | information that gets processed through vision. so we have very sophisticated uh |
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| 16:09 | maps. He's a really maps of representations in the visual cortex that will |
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| 16:16 | when we study the visual system in front here, this little piece of |
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| 16:20 | brain is called the olfactory bulb, out in the front that's responsible for |
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| 16:27 | if you look in the road and can see how large these olfactory bulbs |
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| 16:32 | compared to the rest of the size the brain, and that's because this |
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| 16:35 | how this animal gets around road and around and in and in turn, |
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| 16:43 | also whisk around. This is our perception of the environment. It's not |
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| 16:48 | visual system that's developed. And guess . If you look in their somatic |
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| 16:54 | cortex, you will find what is the barrel cortex. This is the |
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| 16:59 | map where each one of these brown of these brown barrels corresponds to one |
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| 17:08 | whisker on the animals whisker pad. one of these brown barrels here corresponds |
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| 17:16 | one whisker on a whisker pad. is the critical map off the whisker |
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| 17:23 | . This is the cortical sensory map the whisker pad that you see in |
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| 17:28 | periphery. And so this is also be a recurrent theme. Off brain |
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| 17:36 | , activity in these brain maps, naps representing different systems. It's a |
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| 17:44 | sensory system off the road in versus matter, sensory system off or visual |
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| 17:50 | off the human in greater detail. on that is because we live in |
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| 17:59 | environments. We evolved, adapted different these maps or not set in |
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| 18:05 | so to speak, but rather their . You can reshape these maps. |
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| 18:10 | also be another theme in the course plasticity. Brain plasticity is the ability |
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| 18:16 | reshape the connectivity, synaptic connectivity between and even the gross snaps that you |
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| 18:24 | like this at the level of the sense to matter. Sensory cortex. |
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| 18:32 | . So what's happening prior to the century? We have very poor |
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| 18:38 | and these microscopes are not capable of individual neurons, and not only because |
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| 18:47 | not sensitive, but also because neurons you cut the brain and you put |
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| 18:53 | slice under the microscope or you just under a microscope on the brain. |
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| 19:00 | semi translucent, but it's not showing individual neurons. And so, in |
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| 19:05 | 19th century, you have this debate the proponents of the ridiculous theory, |
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| 19:12 | hold that nervous system was a IAM is the network of living material |
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| 19:19 | hundreds or maybe thousands of nuclei distributed the brain and the spinal cord, |
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| 19:25 | all having cytoplasmic continuity from one place the network till now that so it's |
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| 19:33 | one big blob, all with one of plasm and all of these different |
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| 19:39 | in the brain brain, some in spinal cord. Imposingly at the time |
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| 19:43 | a neuron doctrine, also cell And it held that the nervous |
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| 19:48 | like all biological tissues, is composed discrete cells called neurons and each with |
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| 19:55 | one nucleus and surrounded by cell So to accomplish that, we go |
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| 20:04 | have to address these three very important and the stain in 18 73 2 |
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| 20:11 | Golgi is published, a method based silvery agents, the same silvery |
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| 20:20 | They're using photo photograph development at that when you take a picture, if |
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| 20:26 | recall, you have to develop its the film and then you have to |
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| 20:30 | that film and then you have to the picture and you develop the picture |
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| 20:36 | the in the 19th century using the and silver nitrate free agents, there |
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| 20:42 | the whole process. Before you were to take a picture with your cell |
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| 20:50 | , you had thio wind something on camera even 20 years ago. Click |
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| 20:56 | wind. What are you winding? winding a little film 35 millimeter film |
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| 21:03 | the camera and you're impressing the outside on that little film. Okay, |
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| 21:10 | that negative. You call it negative the negative you have toe turn it |
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| 21:14 | a photograph, which is positive you it and there was the whole process |
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| 21:21 | do that you have to take it . The photo, I tell. |
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| 21:25 | , the photographer. Then the photographer say, get in line, put |
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| 21:31 | address and name and phone number. think I can get those for |
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| 21:34 | Ready by two days. What I No. Can you please dio |
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| 21:41 | if you pay extra, you know Aiken Dio Express or something. Then |
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| 21:47 | would come back and get the photographs we get the photographs. I |
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| 21:53 | that was really the way we took for most of the time until the |
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| 21:58 | phones came out. Uh, and develop those pictures, what chameleon Golgi |
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| 22:05 | . He was a scientist. So applied those silver nitrate free agents onto |
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| 22:11 | brains and brain tissues, and he able to stay neurons. So this |
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| 22:16 | called Golgi. Staying after communion. and Camelia Golgi invented the stain, |
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| 22:23 | with the stain does it stains 1 3% of all of the neurons. |
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| 22:27 | when it stains, it stains all the processes as well. The den |
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| 22:33 | that air coming off in the top at the bottom, as well as |
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| 22:37 | accent's very specialized structures that emanate from on the right here or in the |
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| 22:45 | . Here, middle picture is Ramon . How Ramona Alcohol was Chameleon Golgi |
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| 22:52 | Ramona Alcohol is probably the most famous neuroscientists, if not the most famous |
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| 22:58 | period. Very forward thinking. So a student. Ramon. Alcohol uses |
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| 23:03 | set up here, which is called Lucida, which has a set of |
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| 23:09 | here. So he's looking into the that has been staying with Golgi. |
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| 23:15 | and this mirror is showing where his or his drawing is over the specimen |
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| 23:21 | called camera Lucida. So Ra How is drawing these intricate cells and |
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| 23:29 | networks? And we'll look at some these networks and some of these discoveries |
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| 23:33 | he described search off. Sherington now that neurons are discreet units and starts |
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| 23:45 | the term and describing what is the ? The specialized connection between neurons that |
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| 23:51 | neuron forms or another called the synapse . He wins the neurophysiology noble prize |
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| 23:59 | for understanding the synapse for coining the synapse and proposing activity that happens in |
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| 24:07 | synapse at the beginning of the 20th . Chameleon Golgi believes in ridiculous |
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| 24:19 | Ramon Alcohol stands by neuron Drug Train only a lot Look at this |
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| 24:28 | Kahala drawing here that's reprinted in 2006 Nature magazine in Brown with his pictured |
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| 24:36 | are these beautiful cortical parameters ourselves that going to get to know really well |
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| 24:42 | you can see at the apex of pyramid you have these a pickle dem |
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| 24:49 | extending up to the surface of the cortex and at the base of this |
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| 24:55 | of this parameter will sell. This an exciting terry parameter all cell, |
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| 24:59 | is a projection cell at the base experiment. You have these beautiful basil |
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| 25:06 | droids that air emanating also shown on and in black at the bottom of |
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| 25:12 | base of determined. You haven't acts this exits out. So these barometer |
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| 25:18 | cells or projection cells and Ra Monica predicted that they project information that they |
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| 25:26 | information. You see arrows coming in collecting information and the dem rides processing |
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| 25:33 | information on the Selma talking about over 40 years ago he was thinking about |
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| 25:41 | the Somali have access on that comes on Axiron projects that information it gets |
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| 25:48 | by this neuron and does so in certain direction from the Selma onto these |
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| 25:55 | neurons to collect that information and the and then send that information thio other |
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| 26:03 | . He also talked about plasticity that communication between the cells of this connections |
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| 26:09 | the cells or plastic, and that could be the basis of learning and |
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| 26:15 | , forming new connections of forming this , Therefore being able to learn and |
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| 26:22 | near things. What's interesting is Camelia is a proponent of particular theory. |
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| 26:32 | his student, Ramani Kajal is a proponent of neuron doctrine and drawing these |
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| 26:40 | units using his bosses community gold, stain 1906 They accept noble price |
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| 26:48 | but remain rivals on this issue till very end on the take home message |
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| 26:58 | is dead. You don't always have agree with your mentors. You can |
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| 27:05 | disagree. But you learned, take best tools that they provide you with |
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| 27:13 | then bring a foresight into the science into the future wall that your mentors |
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| 27:20 | have only dreamed off. So what missing in this picture? In this |
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| 27:26 | , we don't know that neurons generate potentials, so we don't know how |
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| 27:32 | electrical communication, what really happens. is this electrical communication? What else |
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| 27:37 | happening? How is this information process the South? And then we don't |
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| 27:44 | that neurons generate action potential, so don't record an action potential until the |
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| 27:52 | 19 thirties. There is another stain very important. It's called Missile |
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| 28:00 | After France Missile and missile stand shown in blue. Unlike gold, you |
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| 28:07 | , which stains only 1 to 3% all of the neurons, but stains |
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| 28:13 | of the detail processes to dendrites and axons. This will stain stains all |
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| 28:20 | the neurons, all of the including Leah, but does not really |
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| 28:27 | the precise morphology or anatomy of these . Instead, missile stain is a |
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| 28:38 | tool to visualize the architecture and the architectures off the self. So here |
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| 28:47 | are, looking at what looks like bend bands. 123456 Bend bands. |
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| 28:58 | air actually densely packed layers of the that's called lateral gene Iqaluit, nucleus |
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| 29:05 | the thalamus abbreviated as L. M. The lateral Jinich Hewlett nucleus |
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| 29:12 | the following. This is involved in information processing. You will study that |
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| 29:16 | great detail, and it tells you this part of the brain has six |
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| 29:22 | and this is his neuro anonymous. is what we do. We learn |
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| 29:27 | to read brain maps, and this a brain map that's an architectural brain |
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| 29:35 | . In other words, this is functional. This is not brain activity |
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| 29:39 | , but rather a site Oh, . Er, how do these different |
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| 29:44 | stack up where the dense layers cortex has six layers? It is not |
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| 29:50 | prominent than the stain, but does hippocampus. Here is a structure that |
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| 29:58 | a very prominent, dense band of called stratum, from Adala Farrah |
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| 30:05 | Celera in the sea, a region the hippocampus. Pardon me, but |
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| 30:12 | looking at least at this at this as Anura Anonymous, we are able |
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| 30:19 | say what part of the brain and looking at, whether it's in the |
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| 30:25 | or the back of the brain. are the structures we're looking at? |
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| 30:31 | so missile stain allows you. Thio have a bird's eye view off the |
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| 30:38 | or architecture of the brain and Dr Broad Hman Waas, a famous neural |
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| 30:48 | . So who used this all stain studied the brain, the brain slices |
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| 30:54 | grain detail again? You will stay all of the South. You can |
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| 31:00 | Glion neurons, but you cannot really the processes as you can see. |
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| 31:06 | you can see how dance the repopulating different layers and so using what |
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| 31:11 | call a side architect tonic method He the different functional areas by observing variations |
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| 31:20 | the structure of the South. And , if you look at these diagrams |
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| 31:26 | Dr Bradman, is what the show , the show very distinct functional |
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| 31:32 | 12345 40 41 42 43 44 45 Different areas that are describe them what |
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| 31:45 | architecture the cellular architecture and those brain look like so, unlike for |
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| 31:53 | is that we're trying to read that the surface off the skull, your |
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| 32:01 | decided that in order for us to localization of the brain function and specific |
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| 32:06 | of the brain that are responsible for functions, we have to further describe |
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| 32:11 | anatomy. And by describing that we can reveal mawr about specific brain |
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| 32:19 | . And to this day when you Area 17, any in your anonymous |
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| 32:24 | say area of you wanna primary visual When you say Area four is a |
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| 32:31 | motor cortex, we still know these because the anatomy, the cider architecturally |
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| 32:38 | cider architecture of the rain is still same, and this method is still |
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| 32:44 | to reveal a lot of gross anatomical is not as much connectivity or detail |
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| 32:53 | the processes, but rather architectures er building, the way the cells build |
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| 32:58 | each other to form the different parts the brain. Nuclei, loads and |
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| 33:06 | . Okay, let's put things in perspective of scale a little bit. |
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| 33:11 | let's talk about what's available these These days we have standards like microscopes |
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| 33:16 | are available in the lab that give a resolution of about 0.1 micro |
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| 33:25 | So sell soma on your own. cell body is about 10 micro meters |
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| 33:34 | and a synapse, although here you're at electron microscope picture that has 0.1 |
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| 33:42 | resolution. And even by looking at picture, it looks like this blue |
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| 33:49 | here on the leftist fused with this thing here on the right. Within |
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| 33:55 | , this is the pre synaptic neuron in the red, and these red |
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| 34:02 | are vesicles that are filled with neurotransmitters on the right that is labeled PSD |
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| 34:10 | , and that's shown in dark black brown is post synaptic densities that are |
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| 34:18 | the dem drives of the neuron and two are not connected. There is |
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| 34:23 | nanometer space, which is a synaptic or synaptic cleft separating two neurons from |
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| 34:30 | other in the chemical synopsis here. , so these days we have very |
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| 34:38 | microscopes super resolution called focal microscopes that us visualized individual synapses, electron microscopes |
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| 34:47 | allow us to visualized individual synapses. using these very precise, high resolution |
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| 34:56 | , we have been able to understand neuron contain very specialized not only dem |
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| 35:05 | , but protrusions that come off the that they're called dendritic spines. And |
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| 35:11 | then here stands for dendrite. You mitochondria in here? This is PSD |
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| 35:17 | for pasta synaptic density. It's a of the dendrite that's juxtaposed on that |
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| 35:23 | side of the synapse with the pre axonal terminal filled with neurotransmitter vesicles. |
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| 35:32 | these dendritic spines come in different shapes forms of these dendritic spines of the |
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| 35:38 | plastic elements in the brain. And that I mean that a synapse between |
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| 35:47 | accident the dem dry can be A synapse can be weakened when the |
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| 35:54 | strengthened the space and the connectivity and the size of this dendritic spine, |
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| 36:03 | surface area may increase. When the are weakened, the size of these |
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| 36:11 | spines may decrease, and they may go away and disappear and get |
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| 36:19 | So as you are listening to me and as I recited information to you |
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| 36:25 | last lecture, and as you're learning things, you're now strengthening the synapses |
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| 36:31 | the parts of the brain, the responsible for memory, that's storing it |
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| 36:37 | in different parts of the cortex. you're strengthening the synapses in the signaling |
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| 36:44 | the material that you've already learned. you may be building new synapses and |
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| 36:49 | protrusions coming off the damn rights as learning and encoding new information, forming |
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| 36:57 | memories off the material that you're studying . And as you repeat the information |
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| 37:05 | and over and over, you make synapses really strong. And if you |
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| 37:11 | that information and you don't repeat it , those particular synopsis make it weakened |
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| 37:18 | make it eliminated. And forgetting or elimination is a natural part of the |
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| 37:24 | process. We need to learn memorize things, but we also need |
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| 37:28 | forget a lot of things. Imagine you can forget some of the worst |
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| 37:34 | of your life that we're overtaking It could lead you thio post traumatic |
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| 37:41 | disorder, not post, Uh, post synaptic. Sorry that that actually |
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| 37:47 | be posttraumatic. So post traumatic stress PTSD But instead, your brain has |
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| 37:54 | protective mechanism or forgetting and learning new . And so this synapses change their |
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| 38:02 | . The connectivity, as as you the change, change the shape and |
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| 38:08 | the connectivity and the strength of the . You're also changing the overall brain |
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| 38:14 | that you're seeing in the brain. dendrite, something that expands extremely |
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| 38:21 | This is a set up in my at the University of Houston here, |
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| 38:27 | also shows that these days we can a slice, and this is a |
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| 38:32 | slice of the brain that's sitting under microscope objective of microscope lands over |
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| 38:39 | And this information is going through a of nurse and it can pass into |
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| 38:44 | high pieces. And I won't be to see much in a Sfar as |
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| 38:48 | cells. But if I reflect that off the dike OIC mirror to the |
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| 38:54 | where I have an infrared camera with optics, I can now visualized individual |
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| 39:03 | and even their processes either done It's a different focal points, so |
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| 39:08 | is a typical not a typical. a very violence and expensive electrophysiology set |
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| 39:17 | that you place ah slice of the under and the slices being bathed in |
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| 39:26 | fluid that is being oxygenated to reproduce environment. Those slices and the brains |
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| 39:33 | have in the normal brain. This a rodent slice from a rat, |
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| 39:39 | you can visualize these south you can in black. These micro electrodes and |
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| 39:46 | are very small amplifiers with very sensitive and drives, and you can position |
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| 39:53 | micro electrodes, the brain micro You can position these micro electrodes onto |
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| 40:04 | south, and you can record electrical . And you can stimulate individual cells |
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| 40:10 | two or three cells at the same . And you can accomplish this now |
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| 40:14 | stands, but with advanced microscopy. only high resolution microscopy but also infrared |
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| 40:23 | like is shown in this set The current view on the current understanding |
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| 40:33 | their science is that we actually can function off the brain at a molecular |
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| 40:43 | at the level of a single synapse single dendritic spine at a level of |
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| 40:48 | single cell circuit of cells. Interconnected systems in the brain, an interconnected |
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| 41:02 | of the brain and forming the entire , such as visual system, interconnected |
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| 41:07 | the auditory system with allow factory And we can study this, of |
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| 41:17 | , an experimental in the lab on level of a single synapse. With |
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| 41:23 | , we can study the activity of brain non invasively, using some of |
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| 41:27 | functional imaging techniques. So these air brain maps that are static brain maps |
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| 41:35 | are based on the cell structure and . Er, in the density of |
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| 41:41 | cells, doesn't show you the function using some techniques like positron emission tomography |
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| 41:49 | pet Pet. Scanning allows you to the function of the brain or the |
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| 41:56 | maps of the brain. Which part the brain is active as you're performing |
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| 42:02 | specific function, So pet scans, you give subject something to look at |
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| 42:11 | at words or reading, you will this brain map, which is almost |
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| 42:16 | a heat map, which means the in that part of the brain are |
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| 42:20 | active. And that's the occipital The primary sensory information. Primary visual |
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| 42:25 | coming into the occipital lobe. When tell the subject to concentrate on listening |
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| 42:33 | , you can see that that map activity in the brain shifts toward the |
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| 42:38 | lobe, which is responsible for the functions of the brain. When you |
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| 42:44 | a patient to speak words now, can see the highest levels of activity |
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| 42:50 | broke US areas and the primary motor , which would be initiating these motor |
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| 42:56 | and telling my talk to move around jaws and speaking my vocal cords of |
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| 43:02 | the sound, pushing the air molecules and then thinking of words. You |
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| 43:11 | see that that information is shifted and many different parts of the brain get |
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| 43:19 | as you're thinking of words. It's longer the sensory areas that are involved |
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| 43:25 | looking at the words okay or the motor areas that were involved in speaking |
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| 43:32 | words. You can see that this shifted up more into the frontal cortex |
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| 43:37 | year and Maura away from the primary cortex. When you're thinking of warnings |
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| 43:44 | these maps, air functional maps of and they represent different behaviors. And |
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| 43:53 | are also plastic in the sense that redistribute the activity in different neurons across |
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| 44:02 | brain as we focus in on different . Do we only use 10% of |
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| 44:08 | brains do it? 10%? I know. 2030 40 50 Anyone? |
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| 44:21 | Anyone? 70 80. You can 100% of your Brian somebody chat. |
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| 44:33 | were to cherish too high. you can use 100% of your |
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| 44:42 | That would be called generalized epileptic Not good. Not good. 100% |
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| 44:50 | the brain is like short circuit electrical circuit, brain in flames. The |
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| 44:56 | on fire, 10%. I don't . At some points in life, |
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| 45:02 | use 10% of some points in We use 50% 60% of all |
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| 45:07 | Its 10% thing is just actually a . So we used as much of |
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| 45:13 | brain as we need to, and when you think oh, multitasking because |
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| 45:17 | doing this and this and this. listen, listen listening and then did |
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| 45:21 | uh And then you look at the maps and a lot of times people |
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| 45:26 | do a lot of cognitive tasks or can actually activate larger areas of the |
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| 45:36 | and to connect the different parts of brain through their cognitive tasks and thinking |
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| 45:42 | emotional control in a different way. only time uh, tell us. |
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| 45:52 | , it's 30%. I thought multitasking a thing. Yeah, the multitasking |
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| 45:58 | , I think I'm just saying that does not necessarily mean that because you're |
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| 46:03 | multiple motor tasks is primary sensory tasks taking information but not really cognitively |
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| 46:14 | really engaged in really complex, complex or, uh, even material or |
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| 46:23 | solving? That's one. Actually, see the brain parts shift of you |
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| 46:30 | association areas that you will learn about can blend multiple census sensory modalities |
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| 46:39 | Eso We have most of our human dedicated to association areas which allow us |
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| 46:46 | abstract thinking which allow us for innovation which makes us different, and which |
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| 46:54 | us evolutionarily mawr concerned about abstract thinking than primary sensor information processing. That |
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| 47:04 | not the case in the lower order current view. Apart from path, |
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| 47:10 | also have f a Marai functional magnetic imaging that can show you these different |
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| 47:17 | . This is again the picture of map that you can even be doing |
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| 47:21 | same task. But in one case sitting in, like, kind of |
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| 47:26 | two D three d space. And case you get emerged in the virtual |
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| 47:30 | in the same game here. The was to throw the snowballs at the |
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| 47:36 | , and as you threw the the snow around just a, |
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| 47:40 | and you could detect the differences in map. Just switching that same player |
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| 47:46 | you know, two D environment into virtual environment in three dimensions, really |
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| 47:53 | the map, changing the structure of map even though the same task, |
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| 47:58 | even in different tasks. What we is that each function, whatever we're |
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| 48:06 | cognitively emotionally, it's observed by more one neural pathway. We know that |
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| 48:13 | have redundancy, so we have processing serious and then parallel. But we |
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| 48:20 | the redundancy and pathways multiple pathways to sub served on, so one can |
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| 48:29 | for the other in case of And sometimes it's difficult to localize the |
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| 48:35 | function because we do have alternative pathways of processing Simula types of information. |
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| 48:43 | emotions air also localized. You can emotions by micro stimulation. There are |
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| 48:49 | forms off temporal lobe epilepsy that would a very strong emotional component rather than |
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| 48:56 | convulsive component of having, um, or twitches. It would have an |
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| 49:05 | component off the uncontrollable emotional out Christ crying or uncontrollable laughter out of nowhere |
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| 49:16 | Dinos just because those neuronal networks of neuronal centers are impaired that are responsible |
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| 49:24 | emotion on emotional control. Uh, when you look at these different |
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| 49:31 | you can see the functions consists of processes that are occurring specific areas of |
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| 49:36 | brain. We can reveal what we these elementary operations. The brain has |
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| 49:44 | in serious and in parallel in Because my information comes into the |
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| 49:50 | it's only luminescence of the outside At the level of the columnist, |
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| 49:55 | still luminescence. At the level of primary visual cortex, you form the |
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| 50:00 | sketch of the outside world with motion color and other components so increasingly |
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| 50:09 | it's more complex processing. This is serious processing in Siris. In parallel |
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| 50:14 | when you have the parallel processes. your computer, you have three or |
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| 50:19 | parallel processes. If one is too , the second one kicks in house |
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| 50:24 | . Third, one kicks in and have to restart your computer at some |
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| 50:27 | , the overload. So you go sleep. You we start your brain |
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| 50:30 | the way. It's not that the is not active during sleep, but |
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| 50:34 | acted a different pathways. So you this in serious processing, and parallel |
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| 50:40 | is because you have multiple pathways that be responsible for for for the same |
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| 50:46 | similar functions. These simple mental activities a game actually require coordination of processes |
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| 50:55 | in multiple areas of the brain. organs, arms, hands thinking, |
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| 51:01 | . Maybe, but it's pretty seamless us. You don't think about it |
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| 51:07 | . It's built in its intra. introspective. ITT's interesting brain maps, |
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| 51:15 | ity, brain function from single cells the way to noninvasive methods. The |
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| 51:25 | in the future is can we not see it all? And I think |
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| 51:33 | you guys are going to be able bring those technologies to fruition. I |
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| 51:40 | it is a decade or two away we're going to be able, if |
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| 51:45 | to completely visualized to use in computational , extrapolated activity at the same time |
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| 51:59 | the level of the single cell synapse the whole brain as a whole doing |
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| 52:07 | non invasively. This is really the for the century. Can we have |
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| 52:14 | FMRI pet scan, another image ing noninvasive that will tell me so much |
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| 52:23 | Not just give me these gross then each one of the pixels represents |
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| 52:29 | , if not hundreds of South. want to understand every single synapse in |
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| 52:36 | thousands of cells that are activated here the same time as I'm understanding all |
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| 52:41 | the network being activated and doing it invasively. So as you are, |
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| 52:51 | of you in the scores are juniors seniors. You're thinking about careers, |
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| 52:59 | you're thinking about what to do and you are inspired to do things. |
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| 53:07 | how can you apply your knowledge? this is a couple of slides were |
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| 53:14 | about medical specialists and medical specialties of nervous system. The neurologist to somebody |
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| 53:21 | was studied, disease of the nervous . It's an M d. With |
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| 53:26 | , you, let's say with Apple or Parkinson's disease. Psychiatrist isn't indeed |
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| 53:36 | would deal with mood and personality Depression Eating disorder Neurosurgeon is you don't |
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| 53:49 | to see. It's a person that perform surgery of the brain and spinal |
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| 53:56 | . So if you have growth off in the brain or spinal cord, |
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| 54:04 | if you need to riz act the of the brain that is abnormal and |
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| 54:08 | generating abnormal electrical activity, that's a of neurosurgeon. Neuropathologist studies tissue to |
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| 54:19 | changes in this tissue. Are the dead that the structure of the South's |
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| 54:26 | ? I'm going to stay in the to look for certain markers of certain |
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| 54:30 | markers? A neuropathologist can be an D or Ph. D. And |
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| 54:37 | always say that the past in the and to your future ISS forward |
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| 54:50 | It's not straight. It's forward it it's a winding path. You have |
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| 54:57 | pursue your goal, and you have pursue your future based on the question |
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| 55:04 | you want to answer and what you passionate about. And we will look |
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| 55:11 | some of the examples of M. s leaving their successful medical practices to |
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| 55:16 | scientific questions and dark labs in the of the university's S, Ph. |
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| 55:22 | . S. And you have living . Um, Vice President Kamala |
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| 55:32 | who didn't pass her bar first time didn't give up and passed the second |
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| 55:39 | . Yeah, examples of neuropathologist that PhDs and a running massive, massive |
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| 55:47 | departments at the hospital. Cem Massachusetts Houston, completely immersed in this |
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| 55:55 | clinical environment. So the pathway is forward. And don't be surprised at |
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| 56:08 | careers. You find splits and you deviations and you find challenges and you |
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| 56:14 | hard stops and breaks them. And , um, but you were driven |
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| 56:22 | a goal, and you should be by a problem that you are passionate |
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| 56:33 | , and every problem is a good and experimental neuroscience. In this |
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| 56:41 | I am mostly trained as a so studying electrical activity and brain circuits |
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| 56:48 | brain slices and animals, no pharmacologists different chemicals and how they interact with |
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| 56:56 | and receptors in the brain and their . You're anonymous. I can read |
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| 57:01 | maps of the brain and understand the and functions of the nervous system as |
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| 57:07 | as have done some organ Computational, neuroscience As a neurophysiologist, you'll be |
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| 57:15 | again. You think while neurophysiologist you're and due to that microscope with micro |
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| 57:23 | in the lab And in reality, so my mentor is, uh, |
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| 57:35 | that, uh, in my graduate , you have the committee of |
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| 57:46 | and one of these professors was somebody was a neurophysiologist. He was on |
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| 57:56 | committee and helping me with my PhD . And there's a neurophysiologist. He |
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| 58:03 | so entrenched into electrical recordings from the , and his work was in |
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| 58:12 | But the next thing he's recording in brains with this neurosurgeon, a PhD |
|
| 58:19 | the operating room with a neurosurgeon great. Why would you have a |
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| 58:29 | in the operating room? Because the would be the best person. But |
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| 58:34 | micro electrode in the brain before neurosurgeon a part of the brain out, |
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| 58:42 | the nervous geologist would identify the most , most important functionally parts of the |
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| 58:50 | and help the neurosurgeon delineate the location , uh, focus part of the |
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| 58:57 | that's generating electrical activity like electrical or will help the nurse surgeon avoid |
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| 59:05 | parts of the brain that maybe nearby tumor. And so, uh, |
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| 59:11 | Land from Louisiana State University Health Sciences in New Orleans as unearth physiologist at |
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| 59:21 | time, used to spend a least day week in assisting nurse surgeon working |
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| 59:28 | humans before the neurosurgeon took a scalpel their brain tissue. Uh, so |
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| 59:37 | other, of course, experimental Developmental You can a pressure from developmental |
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| 59:43 | , your chemistry and ornithology, some that border biological psychology and cycle |
|
| 59:53 | Very, very interesting topics and I would say interdisciplinary and cross cross |
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| 60:00 | . In other words, application nor knowledge could become very handy. And |
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| 60:06 | who is a rehabilitation specialist working with that are recovering, somebody who is |
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| 60:15 | dental school and so on. Levels analysis as experimental Neuroscientists range from molecular |
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| 60:25 | systems in the Viva recordings in the brains, whole animal behavior monitoring cognitive |
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| 60:35 | , which again is a cognitive You're bordering between a psychologist of philosophers |
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| 60:42 | a cognitive neuroscientist doesn't mean that there no integrative or application part for what |
|
| 60:51 | studying, so I have some of things outline here some of the traditional |
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| 60:58 | again, maybe some of it is . Then think about neuroscience perspective so |
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| 61:03 | can never you know, I've never is audiology or veterinary medicine or neuro |
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| 61:13 | . Biomedical engineering, neural engineering, engineering law in neuroscience. Why |
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| 61:22 | Because of the patents? Why Because of the injuries in the brain |
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| 61:30 | lawyers and understand neuroscience behind dangerous in brain. So when they call the |
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| 61:37 | experts to testify, they can convey information to the judges for their |
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| 61:45 | The 1 may have happened and traumatic injury and such. Speech therapy, |
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| 61:51 | therapy, special education, drug physical rehab, occupational therapy. So |
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| 62:01 | loss of the public policy. lot of these things really is careers |
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| 62:06 | benefit from a neuroscience perspective. So about that. Think about the road |
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| 62:14 | always forward and rarely ISS straight. we all have difficulties, and we |
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| 62:26 | have challenges. We all living in middle of a challenge. One of |
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| 62:31 | biggest health care crisis pandemics in the . The challenge off virtual online |
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| 62:40 | We're mustering it. We're adapting to new realities to the new environment we're |
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| 62:47 | . I was synapses, our way thinking, psychology, emotions until the |
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| 62:53 | days come and we reshape it And so this I will end the |
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| 62:59 | and see if I can on take questions if I have |
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