| 00:02 | this is neuroscience lecture one and this a slide that I showed at the |
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| 00:07 | of the course similar in the middle the course and toward the end of |
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| 00:11 | course and I want you to look the slide And I'm not gonna talk |
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| 00:18 | about 30 seconds and I want you think about what you think is in |
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| 00:24 | slide. And quite honestly it's a of pretty pictures of the brain |
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| 00:43 | But when you're gonna look at the in the middle of the course of |
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| 00:47 | , at the end of the course gonna have a different perception on the |
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| 00:51 | slide Because with this image depicts on neurons that are connected to each other |
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| 01:01 | the selma's and their specialized processes called rides through other specialized processes called |
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| 01:09 | These axons are insulated and myelin ated that then contacted the neurons and they |
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| 01:17 | neurotransmitter. So axons will produce action is very fast electrical sparks. And |
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| 01:26 | sparks will cause the release of the in the synapse. And that neurotransmitter |
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| 01:32 | bind to the post synaptic receptors on neuron influencing the activity for the state |
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| 01:41 | excitability in that particular neuron. And single neuron can receive Up to 150,000 |
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| 01:54 | and a single neuron at any given could be activated by thousands of |
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| 02:02 | And some of these synopses are excitatory release excitatory neurotransmitter and they make this |
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| 02:08 | more excitable and some of the neurons synopses are inhibitory. So this neuron |
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| 02:17 | receive thousands of excitatory stimuli saying hey know we want you to be excited |
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| 02:22 | some other part of the brain or outside stimuli, external stimuli, |
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| 02:27 | stimuli. And this neuron will also receiving inhibitory input, saying hey dampen |
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| 02:35 | activity. Don't be as excited within . This cell will decide whether it's |
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| 02:42 | enough to produce an action potential or . If it is excited enough to |
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| 02:47 | an action potential, it will communicate information through its processes into the network |
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| 02:54 | neurons that it is connected to saying will get excited here and I'm going |
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| 02:59 | tell you they got excited. So information now from the retina gets sent |
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| 03:05 | other center in your brain that processes information in the third center and the |
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| 03:09 | 5th 6th, 7th 8th. Until engage all of the elements in the |
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| 03:15 | networks that are formed the circuits and networks, their electrochemical circuits and then |
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| 03:25 | of cells and their nuclei of And within these nuclei the cells are |
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| 03:30 | the same or similar functions. Let's they're performing the function of looking at |
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| 03:37 | . They're performing the function of the like auditory cells. So you have |
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| 03:43 | complex networks and neurons that are present the brain are surrounded by glial |
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| 03:49 | Real South play a supporting role for . They also influence the formation of |
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| 03:55 | synapses and neurons the migration of neurons the right locations. Control of the |
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| 04:03 | amounts and synthesis of the major excited neurotransmitter glutamate that's controlled by glia. |
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| 04:10 | there are different subtypes of neurons approximately 14,020 different subtypes of neurons. And |
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| 04:18 | is multiple subtypes seven or eight different of glial cells. So you will |
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| 04:24 | about these individual elements and their functions in particular about how neurons are capable |
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| 04:31 | generating action potentials and communicating with each . Of course these neurons and circuits |
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| 04:39 | part of the central nervous system which comprised of the brain and the spinal |
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| 04:45 | . And if you look in the and the skull and the brain, |
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| 04:50 | have the major divisions into the the frontal lobe, the parietal |
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| 04:56 | the temporal lobe, the occipital lobe the back of the brain you have |
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| 05:01 | Ballon have the brain stem onto which cerebellum is attached going into the spinal |
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| 05:07 | which starts out right beneath your Here we start feeling the vertebra is |
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| 05:12 | your spinal cord starts in between each will have the spinal nerves coming out |
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| 05:18 | different lengths of the body on both that allow you to move your hands |
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| 05:25 | and so on. And this image is the connections. These are all |
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| 05:34 | the connections, different connectivity in the . The networks each color represents a |
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| 05:42 | network connecting two different network and having specific function and processing sensor information, |
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| 05:52 | information, generating thoughts, uh metaphorical , intellectual abilities and all of things |
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| 06:04 | we experience as humans. Mhm. we'll come back to the slide |
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| 06:12 | This is the authors of your These are the authors of your bookmark |
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| 06:16 | , Barrett Connor Cycle, Paradise to beautiful image Again of all of the |
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| 06:22 | connectivity of the networks in the And these artifacts that are shown on |
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| 06:30 | slide were found Up to 30,000 or years ago in the prehistoric times. |
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| 06:42 | these skulls that contain geometrically precise cracks openings in the skull bone are being |
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| 06:54 | throughout the world. In territory Parka in Peru Egypt Mesopotamia. In this |
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| 07:05 | 30,000 BC archaeologists discovered skulls that contain we call triple nations. These triple |
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| 07:15 | can be found in multiple areas in brain. So this is one in |
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| 07:20 | front and one toward the back of brain, occipital load. The archaeological |
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| 07:28 | suggests that these Triple nations were repeated the same location, meaning that the |
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| 07:36 | into the brain. The window in skull was opened and closed and reopened |
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| 07:42 | multiple times. This artifact is a that is the first and original neurosurgery |
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| 07:54 | to perform these interpretations. And the of this tool depicts three figurines. |
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| 08:02 | one in the middle is receiving the pronation of the brain. This is |
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| 08:09 | the neurosurgeon of the time they were Medicine man shaman Crazy man which is |
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| 08:20 | there's maybe somebody that's caring for that . Let's assume hopefully that there is |
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| 08:26 | sort of a rudimentary herbal based anesthesia on at the same time. And |
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| 08:35 | the interpretation for a long time was what does that have to do with |
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| 08:42 | or with neuroscience is that this is a form of torture. What were |
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| 08:50 | original interpretations of these procedures? Somebody obsessed with evil spirits and the evil |
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| 08:57 | make that person mad crazy have to the evil spirits. Where are you |
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| 09:06 | to release the evil spirits all in head? And the spirit will just |
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| 09:13 | up and you know, that was someplace up there. Why not from |
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| 09:18 | feet into the ground? That's a question, right. In reality it |
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| 09:24 | be an explanation for these things, it was more of a spiritual kind |
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| 09:30 | a way of dealing with things or or some sort of a belief that |
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| 09:35 | at the time. But inevitably we to recognize that people had brain |
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| 09:42 | that people had inflammation and bleeding in brains, that they had fluid build |
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| 09:47 | in the brain that was causing And the only way you can clear |
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| 09:54 | hematoma or a basically thickened blood clot the brain is by opening a little |
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| 10:03 | to the skull and cleaning out the and then closing it. And if |
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| 10:08 | is coming back, opening again and it up, there are cases of |
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| 10:14 | where during the early development our skulls soft and if there's abnormal formation of |
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| 10:21 | fluids, were spinal fluids in the , it will stretch the skulls into |
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| 10:27 | abnormal shapes. What we are accustomed think of like alien head like |
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| 10:33 | But the only way to deal with is to make a hole in the |
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| 10:38 | and drain that fluid to get to ventricles, to get to the sources |
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| 10:43 | that fluid to drain it. So is very likely that these shaman were |
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| 10:49 | fact the original neurosurgeons as discovery and in in general and biology and human |
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| 11:00 | . Human bodies and how the human functions. It's all happening. We |
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| 11:05 | want to know how the brain functions a long time, including Egyptians. |
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| 11:13 | thinks that the heart, this is heart is hurting. I have a |
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| 11:17 | . You know how many poems and is written? I give you my |
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| 11:21 | . You know, you're giving your really my emotions in my heart. |
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| 11:26 | know, your emotions are an emotional in the brain. But that was |
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| 11:31 | it's still, you know, like day, we still give the heart |
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| 11:36 | be giving brains. I think it be interesting to change that concept. |
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| 11:42 | in about 1700 to 3000 Bc Edwin from England organizes uh excavations in Egypt |
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| 11:55 | he discovers what is called uh Edwin , surgical papyrus. But it's really |
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| 12:02 | papyrus was written by Imhotep. Imhotep uh um empirical or court physician that |
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| 12:12 | may. So he was serving with with the higher rulers of the land |
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| 12:17 | the higher rulers of the land. later became the dating designated as a |
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| 12:25 | . And there's an incredible respect for body. If you are higher up |
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| 12:31 | the food chain in in in that in Egypt and you die, your |
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| 12:37 | is not discarded, your body is , you get modified. This is |
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| 12:42 | ultimate, The body doesn't get cut in pieces. You get mummified during |
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| 12:48 | mummification process. You're being preserved. fluids are being pumped into you to |
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| 12:56 | the organs because this is a part is important to stay with you whether |
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| 13:00 | going into the underworld the other world wherever was the thinking the emperors are |
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| 13:07 | at the time. Uh the brain not perceived as an important organ by |
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| 13:14 | . It is called the marrow of skull. And it is literally scooped |
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| 13:18 | through the nose with these tools during embalming process. And some of the |
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| 13:25 | like the british Museum in London Natural Museum, I think in new |
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| 13:30 | we have some of these tools that showing that Egyptians were using to scoop |
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| 13:36 | the brain through the nose. It's really accepted that you can take your |
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| 13:41 | body and you can post mortem you , open their skull and cut their |
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| 13:48 | and this is not allowed to do that time. Imhotep is a physician |
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| 13:56 | he walks around and he sees massive being built these boulders that are falling |
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| 14:02 | crushing people crushing their skulls, their , their legs, abdomens, organs |
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| 14:08 | out. And this is how he the anatomy, He studies the anatomy |
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| 14:14 | he studies the consequences of injuries. there are 48 injury cases in the |
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| 14:20 | Smith Surgical Papyrus, 27 of them head trauma cases. He's very interested |
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| 14:26 | what the head is doing despite the that the brain is not that important |
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| 14:30 | not only that he notices that injury the head can have distal effects in |
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| 14:36 | body. What do I mean by ? You have a severe injury in |
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| 14:43 | murder cortex on one side of the , you're not gonna be able to |
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| 14:48 | your hand on the opposite side of body. So he recognizes that an |
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| 14:55 | to the head has to do something the distal effect. There's some connection |
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| 15:00 | here and the hand or the leg the back and so forth. Um |
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| 15:08 | creates a treatment classification system. Ailment be treated may be treated not to |
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| 15:14 | treated. Some of it was priority on your status, but if you |
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| 15:19 | in the field then there were wars on, The construction is going on |
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| 15:25 | going on. There's a lot of that are messy. A lot of |
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| 15:28 | are dying. There's a lot of exposed. There's also need for medical |
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| 15:32 | . But you cannot treat everybody because people not to be treated because their |
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| 15:38 | are untreatable there. They've gone too . Maybe in modern medicine, we |
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| 15:44 | have such a classification. We have triage system. So you typically |
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| 15:48 | if you walk into some medical there's a triage nurse and triage nurse |
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| 15:55 | take your vitals, will understand what's on. You know, you have |
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| 16:00 | nice stuck in your stomach. You usually see a triage nurse. You |
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| 16:04 | into the icy into surgery immediately to treated. You come in. I'm |
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| 16:09 | sure what's going on. I have headache, I'm coughing sit for two |
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| 16:13 | and wait your turn. You that's to be treated a little |
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| 16:17 | But I want to make you think something. Do you remember when COVID |
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| 16:24 | in in 2020 in March of 2020 it seemed like some war started in |
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| 16:34 | people were dying in the hospitals near york was the first sight of the |
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| 16:41 | the pandemic in the United States. days before I was in Times Square |
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| 16:47 | all of the store literally actually a before the day before. Um and |
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| 16:56 | dark times came upon us. It really scary actually. You know, |
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| 17:00 | isolation was one thing, but not this virus how it can spread, |
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| 17:06 | all of the precautions. And so happened to people that have chronic illnesses |
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| 17:12 | needed to do a surgery for their veins. That's not an option. |
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| 17:18 | was not an option. The hospital the healthcare systems were strained to the |
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| 17:24 | the pathway was to save the I see you respirators, other people |
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| 17:31 | the hospital. If you don't need be there urgently, don't go because |
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| 17:35 | may actually end up in the ICU get infected. So well, it |
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| 17:41 | really tough time and it actually questioned . This system that we have as |
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| 17:47 | . And also think about the system we have actually as humans. The |
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| 17:51 | to have insurance. You don't have change privilege. You have really good |
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| 17:59 | or you don't have a very good . You can pay for treatments with |
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| 18:05 | . You cannot pay for treatments in country without insurance. There are certain |
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| 18:10 | and things. So there is there a status still in healthcare. |
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| 18:17 | And you know what I always felt dark. The patient is always as |
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| 18:21 | as the patient is. You have be the best patient in order to |
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| 18:27 | get treated the best. So now is looking into the windows and these |
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| 18:34 | skulls and it's trying to describe the . So he put some graphic descriptions |
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| 18:39 | the brain here. There's two There's some there's something here that is |
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| 18:46 | related to fluid. There's something else on here. There's convolution. So |
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| 18:52 | brain surface is not smooth. And is depicting these convolutions that he sees |
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| 18:56 | the brain surface. We know them salsa and Desiree. It describes the |
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| 19:03 | that surrounds the brain. So these the matters, the dura mater, |
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| 19:09 | meninges that surround the brain and protect brain. There's some fluid here. |
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| 19:15 | there some something is pouring the So, you suspect maybe there's a |
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| 19:19 | of that fluid going on someplace and is that fluid here, you |
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| 19:25 | I'm sorry, that membrane is being an umbrella here and here, |
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| 19:28 | There's maybe like foreign of the fluid is somehow, I don't know, |
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| 19:37 | the brain that has some sort of loop around the brain or something like |
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| 19:41 | . That's what that's what he's able glimpse at. When he's looking at |
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| 19:46 | of these brutal, gruesome cases of open skulls following traumatic brain injuries. |
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| 19:58 | in ancient Greece, we have the of the modern medicine which is Hippocratic |
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| 20:05 | . So when you finish medical you give the oath, the oath |
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| 20:09 | Hippocrates or if you enter into a association, sometimes you have to give |
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| 20:14 | oath of the properties and that's really help and serve the people to to |
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| 20:19 | the people, uh compassion and So, Hippocrates thinks that brain is |
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| 20:26 | major controlling organ center of the body this is the change from Egyptians that |
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| 20:32 | bought the heart was the most important . He thinks that brain is the |
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| 20:36 | of intelligence. Medicine is still a . We call it a craft because |
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| 20:44 | don't have microscopes because you don't have . L. C. Machines and |
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| 20:49 | are spectroscopy. But you actually have lot of medicines that are out |
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| 20:55 | You know that over 80% of pharmaceutical are derived from plants in nature. |
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| 21:04 | when we discover something in plants in than unfortunately pharmaceutical system then likes to |
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| 21:10 | it chemically to represent that same model to see in plant of nature. |
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| 21:16 | in reality a lot of these medicines out there and people are using them |
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| 21:21 | them as a crap. They just know they don't have pathology and things |
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| 21:24 | that Aristotle, which is one of most famous philosophers in the world still |
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| 21:34 | heart. The center of intellect. is an air conditioner off the blood |
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| 21:40 | body. Again, this theme persists heat rises, spirits rise and I |
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| 21:47 | dogs sweat through their tongues and human and events through their heads. Air |
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| 21:56 | in renaissance times. By the way Bc and renaissance times, there's what |
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| 22:05 | call the Dark Ages and we we . There's a lot of religious prosecutions |
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| 22:12 | on. Everything gets very very sort a sequestered into religious rule. So |
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| 22:18 | lands and the world are being ruled by kings and emperors and uh humors |
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| 22:31 | not treated very nicely and with the rebirth. It's a rebirth of |
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| 22:40 | It's a rebirth of humanity from the ages. And it's not saying that |
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| 22:45 | rebirthing ourselves from religion will continue. understand spirituality and religion in different |
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| 22:51 | but we want to have a more dialogue about it in arts. There |
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| 22:57 | depictions of the saints in the Western , there's depictions of jesus and his |
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| 23:05 | , which was not allowed, you try to detect the faces of the |
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| 23:12 | leaders at the dark ages or if didn't believe in certain things, you |
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| 23:21 | up like Salem witches, right? wasn't even the middle Ages. But |
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| 23:27 | , so there's a lot of things on. Um a great movie to |
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| 23:32 | , if you like Sean Connery, of my favorite movies with him is |
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| 23:36 | great actor is in the Name of Rose. And it really sets up |
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| 23:41 | mood for some of those dark times some of the european politics that were |
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| 23:47 | on and how much they were dominated by religion at the time. And |
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| 23:54 | the emergence of renaissance, there's emergence arts, there's emergence in music, |
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| 23:59 | again, sort of like a celebration humanity, There's emergence of arts |
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| 24:07 | Biology, all of these things become interesting and now encouraged to to be |
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| 24:13 | . And so Andreas vesalius now depicted has the ability to actually perform anatomical |
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| 24:22 | . He is allowed, it was allowed until renaissance times to do any |
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| 24:27 | dissections, it was prohibited in, could not cut another human being. |
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| 24:34 | so in renaissance times. Andreas vesalius up the brain and he sees these |
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| 24:41 | what we now call ventricles that contain . He cuts through the brain tissue |
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| 24:47 | he sees that there's gray areas of brain or we would call gray matter |
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| 24:52 | there are white areas of the brain we call white matter. He puts |
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| 24:57 | finger on the gray matter and says feels like a sponge. And he |
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| 25:03 | his finger on the white matter. a little bit harder. Gray matter |
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| 25:08 | like a sponge. And he comes with this concept. The sponge is |
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| 25:14 | all of the information gets absorbed into brain and the gray matter. That's |
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| 25:19 | what he's postulating. Gray matters where soul most of neurons are located and |
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| 25:25 | matter are the external projections and the projections that were depicted in other earlier |
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| 25:32 | in different colors. Huh? So everything is evolving. It's not just |
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| 25:42 | is involving. Religion is evolving. understanding, spiritual world is evolving our |
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| 25:49 | of biology, nature is evolving. of human anatomy is evolving. All |
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| 25:56 | . Everything in this earth evolves. States. The same things that people |
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| 26:02 | 2000 years ago. They only knew because that's what they had available to |
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| 26:09 | . If they saw a microscope 2000 ago. I think those people would |
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| 26:13 | the same thing sometimes. I'm not these people, I don't know who |
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| 26:18 | people are but just any individual that had a cell phone 2000 years |
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| 26:24 | The microscope an H. P. . C. Machine. The gene |
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| 26:30 | . So What was written in philosophy based on the best information that was |
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| 26:38 | 2000 years ago. What was written science was based on the best |
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| 26:44 | Was there at least glimpses and Melinda we understood about black holes right? |
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| 26:52 | about it. Einstein theory of Black holes. You know how many |
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| 27:00 | said that he is just a great er lunatic. It doesn't exist. |
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| 27:04 | just something you calculated on and then want to do they really exist. |
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| 27:10 | don't know. What are the beautiful pictures showing us. Now look up |
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| 27:17 | the most recent telescope discovery pictures they're us black holes, swallowing university drawing |
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| 27:27 | pieces of mass collapsing space time into event horizon. And what comes out |
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| 27:35 | the other side. We don't know but it's it's so it was not |
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| 27:41 | but it is there It is So 2000 years ago people knew about |
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| 27:45 | holes. How would their spiritual spiritual would have changed? How would their |
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| 27:51 | thinking would have changed? I would been this one in psychology. It |
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| 27:58 | becomes important to start distinguishing this mind and spirit or something of higher power |
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| 28:06 | maybe universal and something that we can into bring into inside ourselves. It's |
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| 28:11 | almost like another sensor stimuli that that cannot really proceed it necessarily the same |
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| 28:17 | as vision or hearing or others. this mind body distinction is being discussed |
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| 28:23 | written about in africa, Mesopotamia and the Western world of french, |
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| 28:30 | philosopher and physiologist Renee. The card the first one to kind of systematically |
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| 28:37 | to explain an account for his mind body relationship. He initiates a reflex |
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| 28:43 | . So he recognized that there are behaviors that are reflexive. They're not |
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| 28:47 | learned. What does that mean? means that if you expose a child |
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| 28:52 | a candle and that child has never a candle before, does not know |
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| 28:59 | that flame on the candle wick is put his finger into the candle. |
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| 29:07 | is that child going to do It's reflexive. It's not it's it's |
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| 29:13 | already like pre program reflexive behaviors and are behaviors that are fluid mechanic |
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| 29:22 | behaviors in human bodies. So he to explain human body is a |
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| 29:27 | uh, fluids and mechanics and movement like different bones and fluids in the |
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| 29:35 | . That's an attempt to explain the body is a machine. There's an |
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| 29:40 | attempt now to explain the brain as machine with artificial intelligence and the computers |
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| 29:46 | the higher powers of computing that we have. So nerves are still perceived |
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| 29:54 | pipes by rene, ricard meaning that ventricular view of the brain is dominating |
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| 30:04 | there's fluids in these ventricles and that are nerves going and that these nerves |
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| 30:09 | be pipes carrying these fluids and then they carry these fluids in the |
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| 30:13 | something happens like muscle contractions speaking and on. He believes in this thing |
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| 30:20 | for some reason the connection with body, this basically intellectual ability or |
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| 30:27 | you may or ability to call upon sort of a spiritual higher powers, |
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| 30:35 | maybe universal universality ease. He believes comes into the eyes. It's not |
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| 30:42 | perceived as a spirit that you see contacts onto the pineal gland. Pineal |
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| 30:49 | is sitting in the middle of the doesn't have a left and right |
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| 30:53 | All of a sudden things anatomical, pineal gland is the most important one |
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| 30:58 | this mind body connection, so close with the body. And from there |
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| 31:04 | is some sort of activation of the and therefore you act in a certain |
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| 31:10 | . He comes up with cognito ergo , which is I think therefore I |
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| 31:17 | because when you don't, you don't what happens to you at night. |
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| 31:25 | always ask For about 68 hours if sleep up. Are you consciously perceiving |
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| 31:34 | happening around you? Are you thinking brain is internalized? The motor functions |
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| 31:41 | cut off. What happens when you're anesthesia? Are you there? If |
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| 31:51 | cannot perceive your own thoughts, you're and cognito ergo sum, I think |
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| 32:00 | I am In 1780. Luigi Giovanni this theory of nerves are like pipes |
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| 32:09 | are running some fluid from the brain the periphery. And he starts working |
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| 32:15 | Laden jar this rotating static electricity If you turn and basically through friction |
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| 32:23 | create little electrical sparks and he takes frog and he dissected a frog |
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| 32:31 | exposes a nerve that goes into a and he shocks the nerve and the |
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| 32:37 | leg contracts. Then he shocks the and the muscle contracts, nerves are |
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| 32:46 | pipes or channels, nerves can generate . And there are two types of |
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| 32:53 | tissues in the body that I just that produce action potentials and are excitable |
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| 33:00 | that's nervous tissue and muscle tissue. that's it. There's a new |
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| 33:07 | a new understanding that these nerves and may still contain fluids but they have |
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| 33:16 | inside of them. They are acting like wires that can produce electricity and |
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| 33:22 | communicate that electricity over distances as is in this image here. Huh? |
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| 33:31 | are the major divisions of the N. S. Now that we |
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| 33:35 | and so thank you. Usually go . We that ushered a new era |
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| 33:40 | of trying to understand the electrical potentials how nerves control muscles and and all |
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| 33:48 | these details that came from that. we know cns is comprised of the |
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| 33:53 | which is cerebral cerebellum brainstem and the cord nerves going into the peripheral nervous |
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| 34:00 | , Major lobes, occipital, frontal, temporal cerebellum. We also |
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| 34:08 | that all of the sensor information comes the dorsal park in the back and |
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| 34:14 | enters through the dorsal root ganglion into spinal cord. So all of the |
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| 34:19 | information from below your neck comes into spinal cord, the dorsal part here |
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| 34:25 | all of the motor output. Even you said it from here from your |
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| 34:29 | cortex, say move my left it's my spinal cord through the ventral |
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| 34:36 | nerve that is moving this arm all , 31 pairs of spinal nerves that |
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| 34:44 | that, the sensory and motor And they come out in between each |
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| 34:49 | on each side. So there's a and right, 31 pairs of spinal |
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| 34:56 | , that's what it's apparent. And we move into this other subject matter |
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| 35:03 | localization of specific functions of the And what I realized now is that |
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| 35:11 | been going a little bit slow today I think there's a class here at |
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| 35:18 | so so I'm actually gonna end the today here because I don't want to |
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| 35:23 | through the slide. The slide is interesting in this just really three more |
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| 35:33 | that I was gonna talk about but come back on thursday and I will |
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| 35:37 | on the same material. Thank you |
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