| 00:03 | today we will finish talking about neurotransmitter and what we have learned and what |
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| 00:08 | have studied in greater detail was the ergic neurotransmitter system. Gaba ergic neurotransmitter |
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| 00:17 | and of course the colon urgent neurotransmitter . We talked about the artist and |
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| 00:22 | said that it's not as important for to know the details such as the |
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| 00:26 | that produce them. But it's important know some of the functions that we |
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| 00:31 | for these other neurotransmitters such as serotonin others. So please recall the civil |
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| 00:37 | synthesis release degradation cycle and also see Minister is is a major target for |
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| 00:46 | medications boston optically. We're talking in central nervous system, you have two |
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| 00:51 | of acetylcholine receptors. One is a channel nicotine nick receptor channel. Another |
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| 00:59 | is must koranic receptor binding of acetylcholine nicotine nick. The receptor channel will |
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| 01:06 | for influx of sodium and D polarizing binding of a zero colon two mascara |
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| 01:13 | receptor. It's actually linked to g coupled cascade will open a potassium channel |
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| 01:19 | will cause the hyper polarizing effect at level of the cell membrane. So |
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| 01:24 | you have a single molecule that affects a tropic channel causes deep polarization. |
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| 01:31 | it binds the medical tropic channel it an opposing effect. Same molecule ion |
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| 01:36 | tropic versus metal tropic to tropic sodium be flexing in and through Mastery. |
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| 01:43 | potassium channel will be open and potassium be flexing. This is the shortcut |
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| 01:50 | for Seattle Colleen and so binding of to Moscow Rennick receptor would then initiate |
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| 01:56 | g protein activation binding to the potassium opening of the potassium channel producing that |
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| 02:04 | polarization. When we look at we talked about how glia is very |
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| 02:10 | involved in this. Try synaptic Part of the glutamate actually goes through |
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| 02:17 | re synthesis and re important to neurons re synthesis from glutamine, glutamine ice |
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| 02:25 | to glutamate and subsequent release. And glutamate we talked about I am a |
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| 02:31 | intimate receptors ample an M. A. Uh and we just mentioned |
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| 02:37 | metal tropic with them interceptors. So keep reviewing this information for serotonin. |
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| 02:43 | that these molecules are associated with different to express in different parts of the |
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| 02:50 | . They mean different things uh in sense of they mean different things that |
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| 02:58 | is a happy molecule, appetite If you think about dopamine nor |
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| 03:06 | epinephrine, it's an upper it's when system is active when your system is |
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| 03:11 | . We will talk a little bit the denison in the middle of this |
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| 03:15 | . This is a molecule that's expressed in every cell in the body and |
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| 03:21 | has different effects. But when we about these effects right now we're talking |
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| 03:25 | cns uh neurons and CLS synopsis. this is five HTP serotonin which also |
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| 03:38 | learned in the previous lecture. This one way in therapeutically managing these |
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| 03:45 | The amount of these molecules is several . one way is by blocking the |
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| 03:51 | that will update re update, it will update this molecule, serotonin |
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| 03:57 | back into the present africa. So this is this is the theme, |
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| 04:03 | also the theme that we talked about s a full investigation inhibition. So |
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| 04:09 | degrading enzymes, there's another therapeutic approach we also know that for example, |
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| 04:17 | used an example of uh opposing actions on a tropic versus leftover tropic, |
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| 04:24 | can have opposing actions through to medical receptors and in this example we discussed |
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| 04:32 | binding to either the stimulatory beta receptor is linked to gS stimulatory g protein |
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| 04:38 | that will stimulate the production of psycho push to produce more of that protein |
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| 04:44 | is safe responsible for correlation of molecules proteins. On on the other |
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| 04:51 | the same molecule combined to the alpha receptor that is linked to inhibitory departing |
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| 04:56 | and it will essentially inhibit production of , campy or or pull the system |
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| 05:02 | from making more of the cycle So this is this push pull |
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| 05:06 | So in the case of Siegel Colin IQ which is on the tropic versus |
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| 05:11 | tropic, they had opposing actions you have two memorable tropic receptors and |
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| 05:19 | fact most of the other molecules that discussing apart from the city of |
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| 05:23 | they will act in medical traffic They can compete in this push pull |
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| 05:29 | and controlling for cellular activity and cellular through different receptor subtypes of bind to |
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| 05:36 | same molecule. What is unique about molecules that is different from amino acids |
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| 05:46 | . As we discussed, you will glutamate and gaba expressing neurons throughout different |
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| 05:51 | of the cortex and brain stone, cord. But when it comes to |
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| 05:58 | means such as norepinephrine, such as , such as acetylcholine, they have |
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| 06:04 | bundle the nucleus of cells that produces so most of these cells that produce |
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| 06:10 | substances such as norepinephrine. It produces such as serotonin and then the projections |
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| 06:17 | projections from these neuronal nuclei that produced substance system Diffused. We penetrate throughout |
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| 06:25 | cortex the cerebellum and into the spinal . So local civilians will be producing |
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| 06:33 | serotonin will be produced by rafi The ones in purple will supply the |
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| 06:39 | and the brain stem and cerebellum. ones here in green will be targeting |
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| 06:46 | a peripheral and the spinal cord and civil Colin. We have two areas |
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| 06:52 | will contains south magnus, cellular basal here in green and the donkey show |
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| 06:59 | on time and lateral gulf. So mental nuclei here at the bottom also |
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| 07:06 | a seal cove. Inn so they be targeting again more cortical areas. |
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| 07:12 | cortical areas. And the bottom structure be targeting more the brain stem areas |
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| 07:19 | into the spinal cord as well. this is quite different. These |
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| 07:27 | I mean neurotransmitters are localized. So used an example if you were to |
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| 07:32 | a knife and stab a knife into , serious and just due due to |
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| 07:39 | or surgery, that area is removed . You would not have Narcan effort |
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| 07:46 | if you took half of the hemisphere you would still have the other hemisphere |
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| 07:53 | that will be producing glutamate. Gaba denison is a part of the |
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| 08:00 | D. P. A dentist triphosphate would be ubiquitous in all of the |
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| 08:05 | . Uh huh. And I learned but also to do there at the |
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| 08:12 | . So it's the laughter looking I defective. A lot of these molecules |
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| 08:21 | found not just in the cns, covering the cns. We don't have |
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| 08:25 | to look at how the serotonin is to God for what cells. But |
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| 08:30 | brings me to the point that I last time is that you have the |
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| 08:35 | nervous system components for these molecules. have peripheral and that's also why I |
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| 08:39 | the denison would be in every cell every cell in the body. Because |
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| 08:47 | every cell in the body makes ATP every cell in the body right under |
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| 08:55 | . Almost every cell in the body maybe not an entire system, maybe |
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| 09:00 | both of them. They cannot load . Serotonin central certain and peripheral serotonin |
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| 09:06 | the gut which is very much involved there is a very intricate communication between |
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| 09:12 | gut and the brain and in fact more so between the microbiome in the |
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| 09:19 | which is you carry more genetic material your gut then in your whole body |
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| 09:25 | you have all of these microorganisms and probiotics that is sitting there digesting and |
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| 09:31 | your system alive. This is the digestive system is the only system that's |
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| 09:35 | on the outside of your body. just it just happens to go through |
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| 09:39 | body but outside and outside from one to the other and the microbiome of |
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| 09:46 | bacteria. And the really interesting thing that bacteria can produce metabolites that can |
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| 09:54 | in the gut, bacteria can produce that can cause neurological disorders. So |
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| 10:00 | you ask is there a communication between periphery and the gods? Our town |
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| 10:05 | cns is their levels? Yes of there's interactions, there's communication. If |
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| 10:11 | not direct there is no direct signal the brain to the gut. It's |
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| 10:15 | somehow informs the brain to the point the essentially microorganisms that live inside of |
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| 10:23 | produce metabolizing substances that you know don't very well for the C. |
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| 10:30 | S. So these are then very molecules you should know this. This |
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| 10:38 | a good exam questions And the cannabinoids the cannabinoids are not stored in any |
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| 10:45 | , nitrous oxide, carbon monoxide are stored in the vesicles the lipid soluble |
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| 10:50 | means they cross through plasma membrane and the cannabis. Since we talked about |
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| 10:55 | there's a lot of deep polarization and a lot of either glutamate release or |
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| 11:00 | release and do cannabinoids will get produced Cine optical and will travel retrograde lee |
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| 11:08 | bind to CB one receptors that are protein coupled and they're linked to calcium |
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| 11:14 | . So binding of endocannabinoid anandamide or a G two. CB one receptor |
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| 11:20 | close this calcium channel and we'll close stop the release or regulate the release |
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| 11:29 | glutamate or gaba. That's what it's . Deep polarization and there's a lot |
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| 11:33 | deep polarization. There's going to be of suppression of either inhibition if it's |
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| 11:39 | inhibitory synapses for excitation. So, the cannabinoids, the CB one receptor |
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| 11:45 | both excited her and inhibitory neural transmission CB two receptor, which they also |
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| 11:52 | CB two receptors are found in glia and micro glia will be regulating slower |
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| 11:59 | such as inflammation and pro inflammatory cytokine . So you can think of different |
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| 12:06 | scales for CB one function versus CB function and also retrograde function, meaning |
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| 12:12 | they are located present optical and the would be for nitrous oxide and carbon |
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| 12:18 | respective receptors. It would be located optically to. That's where they're also |
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| 12:23 | THC which is delta nine tetrahydrocannabinol is phyto cannabinoid produced by cannabis plant and |
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| 12:31 | I alluded last time, cannabis plant produce DELTA nine THC produces delta nine |
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| 12:38 | C. A, which is that US in the version of the city's |
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| 12:42 | of THC and THC a does not the high or the euphoric. In |
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| 12:49 | like THC does through also activation of one receptor in the brain. So |
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| 12:57 | nine THC. And the plant has DELTA nine THC. A simple case |
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| 13:03 | planet. So this comes from nature the cannabinoids are produced endogenous when you |
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| 13:11 | see a lot of advertisements and gas and head shops and CBD shops. |
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| 13:19 | eight THC is here. Delta eight is actually unregulated and it's as illegal |
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| 13:30 | DELTA nine THC. But where does eight THC come from? Is more |
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| 13:36 | . Delta nine THC. I told comes from the plant? We're just |
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| 13:41 | eight come from Delta eight gets synthesized the lab by converting c. |
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| 13:46 | d. Another cannabinoid. Cannabidiol or and pushing this bond Over from 8 |
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| 13:55 | carbon to 9 10 carbon. So does that entail that entails a chemical |
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| 14:03 | process to alter a phyto cannabinoid which CBD into a Delta Aid semi synthetic |
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| 14:14 | and everything that is semi synthetic is because there are several methodologies, there's |
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| 14:23 | temperature settings pressure settings To get from into Delta eight. So is that |
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| 14:31 | same molecule always want to synthesize using different methodology. It's always the same |
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| 14:39 | on the plan. Through its genetic machinery produces that Dr. April also |
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| 14:45 | to CB one receptors and it causes euphoria effect. Maybe not the same |
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| 14:53 | as delta nine but it also causes to an extent that we don't understand |
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| 14:57 | very well. Delta nine THC has lot of medicinal properties. It actually |
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| 15:05 | DELTA nine THC a natural DELTA nine a patented medications, pharmaceutical medications. |
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| 15:13 | talk about it later in the But there's nothing that we know medicinal |
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| 15:20 | Delta eight. All right. There's information about that. And when you |
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| 15:26 | about some of synthetic DELTA, it's thing. But there's synthetic cannabinoids, |
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| 15:32 | cannot synthesize a plant. And the way you can synthesize cannabinoids, synthetic |
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| 15:37 | are from chemicals in the lab, synthetic cannabinoids are very dangerous. Because |
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| 15:46 | if your natural phyto cannabinoid or endocannabinoid the ability to open that door, |
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| 15:54 | , and close that door. But receptor channel. Now, a synthetic |
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| 16:00 | may bind to that same keyhole, instead of opening the door and letting |
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| 16:06 | close five minutes later, it will it open for five hours and it |
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| 16:14 | keep it open for a long time it will keep it fully open instead |
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| 16:19 | just half of them. So, the how much of the affinity it |
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| 16:26 | to certain receptor and some of the substances are very powerful that thousands times |
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| 16:34 | powerful. So take an agonist function or closes receptive multiplied by 1000 |
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| 16:42 | That's what a lot of synthetic substances . So when synthetic substances are regulated |
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| 16:49 | the registered lives in a place within , councils, whatever very small amounts |
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| 16:55 | for safety. There is one thing when the synthetic stuff is out there |
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| 16:59 | labeled and sold into something else, really an unknown. And these molecules |
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| 17:04 | act through an M. D. . receptor two and part synthetic molecules |
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| 17:10 | can cause acute neurological dysfunctions that could into crowning dysfunction. This is the |
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| 17:20 | , this is the gamma immunity to . It would have been advising the |
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| 17:24 | most favorite amino acids Glutamate has this . O. H. R. |
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| 17:31 | group. So the atomic acid decker Liz will declare box elated just removing |
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| 17:36 | C. O. H. Group all of the inhibit their selves that |
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| 17:41 | gamma will contain God. Um Glutamate not unique in the sense of glutamate |
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| 17:52 | its own re uptake transporters. Gaba its own septic transporters. Glutamate has |
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| 17:57 | own transporters in theological Gabba has its transport. So it goes through the |
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| 18:02 | cycle Glutamate arctic neuro pharmacology. These the three I on the tropic glutamate |
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| 18:10 | that we talked about Tampa and India kindness. They have their own respective |
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| 18:14 | sample and then being kind and their respected antagonists. The difference is that |
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| 18:21 | glutamate is released and advanced the ample , it immediately opens an emperor receptor |
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| 18:28 | and I'm for receptor channel allows for influx of sodium sodium going inside the |
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| 18:34 | will cause the initial deep polarization of excited or pasta not potential and |
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| 18:40 | D. A receptor which is shown pink here even in the presence of |
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| 18:45 | does not open right away because it a magnesium block. And for that |
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| 18:51 | block to be alleviated cell numbering deep needs to. So when glutamate is |
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| 18:58 | in the synopsis, the am pine M. D. A receptor. |
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| 19:02 | co localized and co expressing the synopsis will get revved up first start conducting |
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| 19:08 | de polarize the cells and with deep magnesium block will be alleviated and now |
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| 19:16 | M. D. A. Receptor will conduct sodium and calcium inside the |
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| 19:21 | and allow for potassium reflux. So these two receptors not an |
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| 19:32 | A tie perceptive hers which is ample and an M. D. |
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| 19:36 | Type of receptor that Iowa tropic We talked about how different substances combined |
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| 19:42 | so this for example binding of C. P. To an |
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| 19:45 | D. A receptor can induce acute , acute schizophrenia, things like |
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| 19:51 | These are synthetic illicit drugs on the . The memorable tropic receptor will function |
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| 19:59 | g protein coupled cascades. Okay so confuse an M. D. A |
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| 20:04 | as metal tropic and Campuzano tropic. ion a tropic metal tropic by definition |
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| 20:12 | lengthened you protein cascade. This is example where we said okay let's apply |
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| 20:19 | of our knowledge, voltage clamp it us to Clamp of potential and desired |
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| 20:25 | value. Great and we see that is no current here in India -60 |
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| 20:30 | the presence of glutamate because you have block here and this is normal physiological |
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| 20:36 | concentration and M. D. A currency will reverse it zero low levels |
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| 20:42 | we started nursed equation and we started equilibrium or reversal potentials for individual |
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| 20:48 | It was just for sodium because it sodium voltage gated sodium channel. Just |
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| 20:53 | potassium, it was selective potassium These receptor channels can allow for the |
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| 21:01 | of multiple islands. So settle Colleen comes in nicotine receptors, it'll calling |
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| 21:08 | sodium comes in Picasso um goes Where does acetylcholine receptor channel in the |
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| 21:15 | muscular junction of producers and play Where does it reverse at zero |
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| 21:22 | And then the a receptor versus zero ample receptor cards reverses zero more |
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| 21:28 | Think about it now you're thinking not one, you cannot use noticed equation |
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| 21:34 | calculate the equilibrium potential for an D. A receptor because you're flexing |
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| 21:40 | ions and they also have preferences meaning sodium comes in first and then potassium |
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| 21:47 | up. So there's a sequence. the way that you can determine the |
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| 21:52 | currents or equilibrium potentials for these receptor that conduct More than one ionic species |
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| 21:58 | by using voltage clown. Now that can definately improve you out of the |
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| 22:03 | reversal Now you can use it for computational applications modeling and so on on |
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| 22:09 | right is an experiment where magnesium is from extra extra cellular solution and now |
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| 22:14 | at minus 60 you see that an . D. A receptor is opening |
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| 22:17 | . So this proves the point using clamp that magnesium is the one that's |
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| 22:23 | an M. D. A. . And if you remove that magnesium |
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| 22:27 | , a license as co factor is to start opening the channel even at |
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| 22:31 | resting number in production. Uh huh . So what And in the future |
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| 22:44 | a lot of doors. Yes. exactly. It's a good it's a |
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| 22:53 | question. Uh You probably could derive value. Probably could derive that value |
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| 22:59 | you would have to know the exact the abilities and now you have three |
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| 23:04 | or two. So you can have ratios of this permeability is too as |
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| 23:09 | change dynamically. So you could get there. But you still would have |
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| 23:15 | do an experimental well fish plant manipulation definitively prove it. And then use |
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| 23:19 | calculations because then you would know okay is coming in first and it's strong |
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| 23:27 | , calcium is coming into those are positive of our souls. Then potassium |
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| 23:32 | going through with huge drive for it that. Which level do you calculate |
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| 23:37 | potassium then? You see what I ? Because it's dynamically already shifted away |
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| 23:43 | and the driving force has changed. there is there is a way of |
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| 23:48 | it but not so straightforward and the way is really to track it |
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| 23:54 | You remove magnesium. This is what get. You basically get opening of |
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| 23:59 | an M. D. A receptor lot of current. A lot of |
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| 24:03 | polarization which will cause plus an epic and zero magnesium is also used as |
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| 24:08 | model to induce seizures. Sin etc. Okay so if you remove |
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| 24:15 | from neural networks and neural tissues there's to be so much excitation is going |
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| 24:22 | be with just a little bit of . Release a lot of NMDA a |
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| 24:26 | of calcium influx, a lot of synaptic synchronization causing abnormal seizure activity. |
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| 24:34 | here we said okay we are so now we know what the ivy cloths |
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| 24:41 | . Current voltage plots. We know to use voltage clamp, we know |
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| 24:46 | to use pharmacology and you know what and antagonists are now. So this |
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| 24:52 | what this graph really describes as. doing an experiment where I'm voltage clamping |
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| 24:57 | potential minus 80 minus 40 plus 20 40 and I'm producing a stimulus right |
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| 25:03 | . This this small dash line and is glutamate application. So I'm stimulating |
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| 25:08 | neuron with glutamate and I'm recording the response. So this inward current |
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| 25:15 | This inward coming in current is actually positive current coming into the south. |
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| 25:23 | , inward current positive charge coming into south during the early component of |
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| 25:29 | P. S. P. sodium coming inside the south. That's the |
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| 25:32 | charges coming inside the south. And I'm gonna do is has already learned |
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| 25:39 | the early component is the ample So what I'm gonna do is as |
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| 25:44 | stimulate this tissue with glutamate, a holding potentials. I'm gonna do two |
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| 25:50 | , five milliseconds following the stimulus which the early component and 20 milliseconds following |
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| 25:56 | stimulus. And when they do 5:00 the stimulus and I measure the amount |
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| 26:01 | current. This deflection here at -80 plus 20. I get a curve |
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| 26:09 | a linear curve for ample receptor. this is ample receptor curve. And |
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| 26:13 | can see that ample receptor currents also zero million balls. The late |
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| 26:19 | When I measure late component of -81 all around here, I don't see |
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| 26:24 | current -100 -90. This is the circle, I don't see much |
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| 26:30 | It's close to zero value. But when I. D. Polarized the |
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| 26:35 | here, okay when I change the from minus 60 minus 40 minus 20 |
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| 26:40 | can see that an M. A. Car information and I get |
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| 26:43 | N. M. D. A which is the left component measured here |
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| 26:48 | is the blue. So this blue is all an M. D. |
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| 26:54 | receptor component. So an M. . A receptor is responsible for generating |
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| 26:59 | late current in the mps me. it's also much prolonged compared to the |
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| 27:05 | of the ample receptor which is just this white curl here. Uh |
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| 27:12 | Or here. So the last thing I'm gonna do is I'm gonna apply |
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| 27:16 | PV which is blocker for an B. A. Chapter. And |
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| 27:20 | gonna measure again the early component in late component. When I apply a |
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| 27:25 | does not affect the early component. close they're open triangles. It's always |
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| 27:31 | because HPV is a specific walker to receptor. And you're proving it with |
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| 27:35 | experiment. They're also proving that an . D. A. Will reversal |
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| 27:39 | million balls the same way as an . And you now take the measurements |
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| 27:45 | these are the open circles at -80 different holding potentials in the presence of |
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| 27:52 | PV. And you essentially get near line which is zero current. You |
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| 27:59 | the late component with a P. . So this is all of the |
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| 28:05 | that you know today voltage clamp measurement inward versus outward current as a function |
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| 28:12 | voltage ivy plots. Early component which early component of E. P. |
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| 28:19 | . B. Early deep polarization through receptors is linear. Late component, |
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| 28:26 | and prolonged deep polarization After magnesium block been alleviated this during M. |
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| 28:31 | A receptor. It's non linear and pharmacology antagonist. The blocker for NMDA |
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| 28:39 | blocks only the late component and does affect the early component. And so |
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| 28:45 | see if you read anything with your and a lot of times it will |
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| 28:49 | in your physiology studies of current measurements neuro pharmacology Uh you'll see these five |
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| 28:58 | and by knowing that the dynamics the and the selectivity of these channels. |
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| 29:04 | we can really start modeling the cell is interconnected cells and cell networks and |
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| 29:09 | on. When we talked about Tampa glutamate in general we talked about emperor |
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| 29:18 | as it relates to calcium and so this long sequence of amino acids and |
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| 29:25 | receptor, these are trans membrane segments one of the subunits of emperor |
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| 29:31 | If it has glue them in it conduct in the presence of glutamate. |
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| 29:38 | will have sodium conductance will conduct sodium in the presence of glutamate it will |
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| 29:44 | have calcium conductance sodium current here this calcium Caro. But if you substitute |
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| 29:52 | argentine, you apply glutamate, you get sodium current. You fly glutamate |
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| 29:59 | you get no calcium card. So amino acid in this in this sequence |
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| 30:08 | long sequences significant enough to determine whether sample channel is permeable to calcium or |
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| 30:16 | . And that is actually a significant because as you are allowing for calcium |
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| 30:21 | come in it's not as much concern changing the membrane potential as acting as |
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| 30:27 | secondary messenger inside the south boston Little bit tropic glutamate signaling is through |
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| 30:35 | protein coupled and one of the examples such as through breakdown of P. |
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| 30:40 | . P. To the Gospel Ibc diacetyl whizzer. All this member inbound |
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| 30:45 | activation protein tie in A. And I. P. Three and |
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| 30:49 | don't triphosphate binding to calcium receptor channel the smooth and the plastic particular causing |
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| 30:56 | use calcium release intracellular early again calcium induce its own calcium release But |
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| 31:03 | p. three. And activation of matter with tropic signaling can also induce |
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| 31:08 | the calcium movies. So as you see the actions of medical tropic receptors |
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| 31:13 | nothing to do with with the channel rather activation of downstream into cellular um |
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| 31:23 | and to cellular cascades. And it be also affecting downstream channels. Of |
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| 31:29 | I don't amino acids were discussing about Gaba is an agonist and natural |
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| 31:37 | Benzodiazepine is also an agonist habituation. steroids that will all stimulate this channel |
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| 31:44 | order to increase levels of inhibition. can be viewed as sedatives in the |
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| 31:49 | nervous system. And so is alcohol the first couple of drinks inhibit you |
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| 31:55 | it quiet and contemplated and last couple drinks completely disinhibited you because you just |
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| 32:03 | inhibited this channel and there's now disinhibition . This inhibition and uh it's time |
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| 32:11 | go home. So when Gaba binds the Gaba a receptor channel will conduct |
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| 32:19 | and chloride coming in through the Gaba channel will cause hyper polarization. Gaba |
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| 32:26 | is a memorable tropic Abba receptor that length as you brought in and through |
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| 32:32 | dental cyclist cascade. It can control influx. Passen optically and Kristen |
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| 32:40 | Gabby can control calcium. Uh So this is Gaba A versus God |
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| 32:47 | be when Gaba A gets activated. is an example of such activation. |
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| 32:56 | Gabby gets activated, it hyper polarizes number. So this is an example |
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| 33:03 | I produced the stimulation onto a And that cell obviously has an excited |
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| 33:10 | input. I'm stimulating fibers and I'm from the cell when I stimulated the |
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| 33:15 | as he excited to for synaptic potential here and that excited very personality potential |
|
| 33:22 | gets flanked cut off and sculpted and membrane gets hyper polarized by Gaba |
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| 33:32 | And thats chloride flexing in gobble. channel will reverse that the reversal potential |
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| 33:39 | flora. It's a glory channel. and gobble a channel. And so |
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| 33:46 | membrane hyper polarization mugabe will try to the equilibrium potential for chloride just minus |
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| 33:55 | . Gabby channel bless you. Is and is linked to the G. |
|
| 34:02 | dam. Okay. And God will channel activation is different. It is |
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| 34:09 | to potassium and is linked to calcium . So when Gaba B. Is |
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| 34:16 | person optically. Yeah but be linked potassium channel will try to drive the |
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| 34:23 | and potential to equilibrium potential to potassium is -80. And so this early |
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| 34:29 | PSP component is ion a tropic. chloride driven and the slave component you |
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| 34:36 | even more hyper polarization. It's Tropic is gotta be driven and tries |
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| 34:42 | reach the equilibrium potential for potassium drawing even more. Two more negative |
|
| 34:50 | So we talked about how I wanna seal Colin will dip polarized. Metal |
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| 34:57 | will have to polarize opposing actions. talked about opposing actions in the cell |
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| 35:02 | metal tropic targeting the same molecule while pushing to express more another one. |
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| 35:07 | away from the expression here you have case where I wanna tropic guy but |
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| 35:13 | . Is hyper polarized. Listen and of a tropical baby is hyper |
|
| 35:19 | So now you're saying that there are rules to these things. Like I |
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| 35:24 | tropic glutamate signaling. I'm paul D. A. Plus metal tropic |
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| 35:30 | do many things through glutamate and hyper can activate channels can activate intracellular |
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| 35:38 | But here you have an example where effect through Iowa tropic and metal with |
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| 35:43 | is additive on to the plasma Both are hyper polarizing. This is |
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| 35:49 | example of where you see this E that gets chucked by Gaba A. |
|
| 35:54 | here my inhibition. This is a . You see an I. |
|
| 35:58 | P. S. B. But doesn't grow much. It gets struck |
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| 36:02 | by nearby in cuba tourist announced hyper . Now applied by curriculum which is |
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| 36:10 | an antagonist blocker for gaba a Now at this trace number two the same |
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| 36:18 | of stimulus. But now this excitation unchecked. You have very strong deep |
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| 36:25 | that's long lasting that's prolonged. And call this this runaway deep polarization because |
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| 36:31 | it's so strong in this neuron and action potentials is probably communicating to other |
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| 36:37 | and other networks and is running So inhibition checks that excitation from being |
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| 36:46 | running away. It sculpts it sculpts not only in the membrane potential value |
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| 36:51 | also it sculpts it in the dynamics the activity that it can produce. |
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| 36:58 | . And obviously throughout the network systems spatially temporally. Now this is a |
|
| 37:06 | that puts it all together that helps understand how come there's this cabaret. |
|
| 37:12 | but be pre synaptic synaptic luna Was there any PSP. And then |
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| 37:18 | followed by I. P. P. Because you have excitatory and |
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| 37:23 | synapses projecting off the cells and you be stimulating fibers that are both excited |
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| 37:29 | and inhibitory. They're projecting dramaturgical fibers dermatologic releasing neurons and Gaba ergic |
|
| 37:36 | So let's look at this Gabbar ergic here is inhibitory when jabari gets |
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| 37:41 | Advanced the chloride. Yeah but receptor that are firmly in both the florida |
|
| 37:47 | polarizes boston optically. It also binds Gaba b receptor channels the G |
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| 37:55 | It opens potassium channel. Sorry. did you guys would be receptor which |
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| 38:00 | potassium channel also causes more hyper So we have a lot of hyper |
|
| 38:06 | happening here as Gaba synapses very efficient interestingly enough the same Galba synapse also |
|
| 38:14 | God would be receptor located here. in optical and the function of Gaba |
|
| 38:21 | receptor present topical is through G protein complex inhibit calcium influx and by inhibiting |
|
| 38:32 | influx, it inhibits its own release molecule. Release. It auto regulates |
|
| 38:39 | these other receptors how much gabby gets . The more the more of this |
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| 38:47 | gaba gets release, the more of will have the ability to buy into |
|
| 38:52 | at the Gabba B receptors and control own release nearby. We have this |
|
| 38:58 | tourist synapse and this excited tourists synapse glue domain and this is an |
|
| 39:03 | D. A. Receptor of course will be ample and an M. |
|
| 39:06 | . A receptor. So there will deep polarization here. An M. |
|
| 39:10 | . A receptor is charged here with lot of influx of calcium and turning |
|
| 39:15 | . There's another kindness calcium ca module kindness which can activate Galba B receptors |
|
| 39:23 | athletically on the excitatory synapses and cause polarization by opening potassium channel. Whoa |
|
| 39:36 | does that have to do with Nothing. This is all through glutamate |
|
| 39:43 | are not that that simple in the but this shows you that gluten can |
|
| 39:49 | activate. Plus in at the Gabba it can hyper polarize and excited various |
|
| 39:56 | . But it does that through intracellular cascades. It doesn't bind to those |
|
| 40:01 | . So what happens if there is much gabber released here that actually spills |
|
| 40:08 | . It spills over from this synapse now it can interact with pre synaptic |
|
| 40:14 | B receptor. So I'm excited. synopsis so excited. They're synopsis will |
|
| 40:18 | expressing Gabby receptors binding uh Gabba gabba receptor. Well shut down calcium and |
|
| 40:27 | shut down glutamate louise. Whoa. you have this synapse that's active and |
|
| 40:37 | immediately gabba synapse gets activated immediately following you get hyper polarization and you have |
|
| 40:45 | down of glutamate release if there is lot of an ambition. Yeah. |
|
| 40:49 | this this is really good key where is really good chart for you to |
|
| 40:53 | thinking about what's possible topic was pre , how these things work. And |
|
| 40:58 | come back to a couple of diagrams this and of course uh today actually |
|
| 41:06 | is G protein coupled receptor. You 1234567 remembering spanning out the hell is |
|
| 41:16 | year, a couple of the g complex and you have a seal Colin |
|
| 41:21 | sarinic receptors. Multiple subtypes glutamate, tropic. Probably up to 14 sometimes |
|
| 41:30 | also has subtypes dopamine, serotonin norepinephrine catholic cannabinoid one CB one CB two |
|
| 41:39 | another unusual neurotransmitter molecule we discussed. ATP is a neurotransmitter also binding to |
|
| 41:46 | memorable tropical dennison receptors. A one two A two B and P two |
|
| 41:51 | . P two X receptors. All these are very interesting molecules and quite |
|
| 42:00 | . Just so when you think you masculinity, formidable tropic, a little |
|
| 42:06 | receptor. There's another M6 that appears when you think you understand the metaphor |
|
| 42:13 | adam interceptor functions. Number 14 gets someplace else. And actually another intracellular |
|
| 42:19 | . And so you get these sigma of posters that have like 1000 arrows |
|
| 42:25 | it all interconnected something doing something, something moving there and there and it's |
|
| 42:30 | it's like this huge huge puzzle and what it is you know? But |
|
| 42:37 | we want to do is in any like that, not just computational but |
|
| 42:43 | biological task. You want to reduce as a few of important variables as |
|
| 42:52 | . This is a transmitter gated channel . So you have here seal Colin |
|
| 42:59 | IHC receptor shown here alpha subunit alpha beta, gamma delta. And each |
|
| 43:06 | of these subunits will have four trans segments. M one through M four |
|
| 43:13 | Colin. Again, this is neuro and molecular analysis of some of the |
|
| 43:20 | molecules and some of the things that really need to know. Still Colin |
|
| 43:25 | , it muscular tonic receptors, Mascarenas, agonists. Easy your area |
|
| 43:30 | entropy. You may have to memorize norepinephrine. We talked about how alpha |
|
| 43:35 | beta receptors are opposing actions receptors but never talked about as a fraternal from |
|
| 43:40 | full name are the agonist antagonist. not responsible for that glutamate sampling and |
|
| 43:47 | . D. A easy company. agonist here you have to remember the |
|
| 43:51 | . N. Q. X. example an ap fee or a |
|
| 43:54 | D. Or a P. Five the name of the year for Gabba |
|
| 43:59 | . Hey Gabba bean receptor subtype. so some of these are gonna tropic |
|
| 44:05 | tropic. These are both metal These are both Guyana tropic and in |
|
| 44:09 | this is aina tropic. Metal tropic we only mentioned by curriculum as a |
|
| 44:15 | a receptor antagonist. But we talked Gaba agonist that are not mentioned here |
|
| 44:21 | as ethanol, narrow sterile benzodiazepines. you should remember that because if you |
|
| 44:27 | into medical field you'll hear people. he or she on Benzos? You |
|
| 44:33 | that? What offends us as a is different formats of these medications but |
|
| 44:39 | quite all 50 or so. Your medication that's very potent and apple of |
|
| 44:44 | seizures but also in other neurological disorders is being cross prescribed. Okay then |
|
| 44:51 | TP receptor subtype P. Two action type receptor 80 P. Combined an |
|
| 44:58 | for a T. P. For . Two extra staff to is an |
|
| 45:02 | . T. P. An agonist denison receptor is bob dennison. Okay |
|
| 45:08 | this is what I said I'm going discuss with you guys antagonists. Madonna's |
|
| 45:13 | the sector is caffeine and that's because a substance that you guys consume every |
|
| 45:20 | . I'm gonna try to apply my abilities here. Draw something. Draw |
|
| 45:30 | . I'm going to draw synapse Oh well maybe maybe not. |
|
| 45:42 | Mhm. Mhm. We said that here where? And this is |
|
| 45:53 | Okay so we're releasing glutamate here And prison optically you have an accident |
|
| 46:03 | receptor and this Dennis isn't receptor is to the nearby it's linked to nearby |
|
| 46:18 | channel. So this is would be coming inside. That's what calcium is |
|
| 46:38 | inside. So a denison in the And again this goes back to your |
|
| 46:45 | is the denison and only cns. we're talking about here. See central |
|
| 46:49 | analysis, let's talk about it. does it do in the cns? |
|
| 46:53 | the function of a person? Denison go up in the evening. Both |
|
| 47:00 | is an agonist. So dennison will this cascade and it will block calcium |
|
| 47:13 | . Okay, so dennison blocks Oh mm no calcium influx. If |
|
| 47:26 | block calcium you're now controlling wait a release. So in the CIA nasa |
|
| 47:35 | levels go up in the evening, actually quiets your brain down naturally reduces |
|
| 47:42 | produces excitation. So high levels of dentist in the cns would be in |
|
| 47:48 | evening time at night time and in morning time and we'll start dwindling |
|
| 47:53 | What are you telling us? I'm you that these molecules are expressed also |
|
| 47:59 | levels during different states of being during behavioral states during different stimulatory sympathetic parasympathetic |
|
| 48:09 | coming in sensory things. Different Denison goes up in the evening. |
|
| 48:16 | cosmetic nucleus you will learn as transcription . It controls diurnal rhythms which are |
|
| 48:22 | night rhythms And those transcription factors once goes up at nine now the set |
|
| 48:29 | up in daylight. So you have of these molecules as part of your |
|
| 48:35 | cycle potentially to. So this is denison but we are interested in |
|
| 48:45 | This is really bad. I wish had something else. But this is |
|
| 48:51 | and what caffeine does caffeine is an . So Captain will actually allow for |
|
| 49:00 | calcium to keep coming in and allow glutamate to be released. Uh |
|
| 49:09 | So a denison will close calcium channel G protein and we'll reduce glutamate and |
|
| 49:19 | will open calcium channel to the dentist receptor and will induce lewd image release |
|
| 49:24 | so you'll have activation and excitability and lot of us are addicted to caffeine |
|
| 49:30 | we need the first thing in the or a half an hour an hour |
|
| 49:35 | . We don't do anything until we it. And it goes you know |
|
| 49:41 | from pace to bobo tea. Um other things that we we don't know |
|
| 49:48 | is a performance enhancer too. And a debate of how does it entrance |
|
| 49:54 | , what is what you a dentist receptors the denison receptors quiet the brain |
|
| 49:58 | you know the heart has a kind a dentist in receptors. So can |
|
| 50:05 | give somebody in a dentist and supplement make them sleep very likely effect if |
|
| 50:10 | give them a dentist and supplement you're to stop their heart. All |
|
| 50:14 | So these things central peripheral, what talking about, dynamics the dynamics of |
|
| 50:21 | . And if the central nervous synopsis in the heart of it slows down |
|
| 50:26 | heart rate of demos and a lot caffeine speeds up the heart trade |
|
| 50:31 | You get wired, you get And so there was a long debate |
|
| 50:38 | there's still ongoing debate whether the performance , especially especially long endurance for athletes |
|
| 50:45 | are long runners. Long distance, endurance caffeine is a good substances |
|
| 50:53 | Um So there's a research and debate where is it acting? Is it |
|
| 50:56 | the periphery caffeine? Is it affecting peripheral and that's the enhancement? And |
|
| 51:04 | seems to be, the answer is acting mostly through cns neurons and that's |
|
| 51:08 | enhancement. So maybe it's more of behavioral emotional mood enhancement that is more |
|
| 51:17 | rather than the physiological things that are place in the periphery at the same |
|
| 51:23 | , you have a question. Fine the Yeah, so you'll you'll see |
|
| 51:34 | and you'll see caffeine and uh not in weight lifting but also in the |
|
| 51:42 | drinks and things like that also. a lot of uh amino acids |
|
| 51:51 | you'll see protein shakes. Um So of these things, you know, |
|
| 51:57 | see omegas, omegas of precursors. cannabinoids under cannabinoids go up with with |
|
| 52:04 | levels of physical activity. Um So lot of these things are out |
|
| 52:11 | A lot of these things are being and a lot of these things we |
|
| 52:14 | really know exactly how it works and for some of the supplements, especially |
|
| 52:19 | it's not a placebo effect, But placebo effect is 30% change And somebody |
|
| 52:26 | say give me a 30% change in level with any placebo, you |
|
| 52:31 | So so this is again, you , we're thinking well maybe it's my |
|
| 52:35 | right now it's actually a CMS is working because of the caffeine and then |
|
| 52:40 | things will follow them. So I'm man. Oh yeah, all |
|
| 52:51 | That's an interesting question of how caffeine can affect them is in cycling. |
|
| 53:03 | can tell you how it will keep up at night. That's that's that's |
|
| 53:08 | what it is. And it can then cause insomnia. In fact nicotine |
|
| 53:14 | do the same thing because nicotine has stimulatory effect downstream. What these molecules |
|
| 53:19 | , they can activate dopamine When somebody nicotine, it's a reward through dopamine |
|
| 53:27 | and it's an incredible reward because I the cigarette, I'm done and I'm |
|
| 53:32 | to do 10 more tasks today that will finish and that is sucking smoking |
|
| 53:38 | putting out the cigarette highly rewarding, know, not only does the behavior |
|
| 53:43 | the nicotine stimulates, dopamine release It makes you feel happy then there's |
|
| 53:50 | that follows through activation and adjustment of molecules. Dennison is linked to canna |
|
| 53:56 | needs and caffeine is linked to counter use, you know, so it's |
|
| 54:01 | all interrelated and of course there will an effect and chronic use of anything |
|
| 54:08 | the on the synopsis and especially for that are diurnal cycle and then you |
|
| 54:13 | , you know, Instead of 12 cycle um close, I'm gonna |
|
| 54:17 | up 20 hours a day and just myself up in caffeine. You can |
|
| 54:22 | that for a couple of all nighters then your system is going to break |
|
| 54:26 | . I'm gonna get sick. Uh just it just happens, you know |
|
| 54:31 | some of these stimulants that are out uh uh the gas stations, caffeine |
|
| 54:38 | stimulants, they're they're quite gibberish, know like they can they can really |
|
| 54:44 | you both physically and mentally. Yeah. Right. I don't |
|
| 54:57 | I don't know. So I'm kind like that to a little bit. |
|
| 55:04 | can drink coffee after six or 7 nobody in my family can touch it |
|
| 55:10 | like noon. Yeah. And yeah t actually in a lot of |
|
| 55:17 | it's tea in our coffee and I used to drink tea in the |
|
| 55:23 | like seven PM eight PM and then know go to sleep. So |
|
| 55:27 | so you you grow up with, you change those cycles, it's |
|
| 55:31 | the brain is plastic. These molecules plastic. But if you push the |
|
| 55:35 | , it's like a rubber band. know, you play with these |
|
| 55:40 | you play with the systems when you a synthetic agonist 1000 times more and |
|
| 55:46 | remember goes and then you have to it. You know that recovery could |
|
| 55:53 | getting silver from ethanol, alcohol. , or waiting for three months and |
|
| 56:01 | maybe even taking medications to doing something serious to recover from from a system |
|
| 56:06 | gets broken. You know, it its own electricity and dynamics and |
|
| 56:11 | Yeah. Alright, so over time get the same. So is that |
|
| 56:22 | it's just more hyper polarization or physiological ? And the receptors get tired |
|
| 56:32 | And uh you know, it's a of Yeah it's both. Some are |
|
| 56:42 | some are not. Some changes are . Some of these agonists that's what |
|
| 56:46 | call them. Reversible agonists bind and I'm buying and then others are |
|
| 56:53 | That means they stick the protein and stuck there. What do you have |
|
| 56:56 | do? Is there an antidote? there something you can bind to the |
|
| 57:00 | to change this confirmation to keep this guy out? So it all |
|
| 57:05 | Let me just finish this real quick saying that neural transmission and chemical synaptic |
|
| 57:11 | allows for multiplication and amplification have a of neurotransmitter that neurotransmitter through a single |
|
| 57:19 | can activate multiple G proteins can activate mentally cyclists as protein, kindnesses, |
|
| 57:28 | can place for elite multiple channels. you have amplification through the chemical |
|
| 57:36 | You don't have through the uh electrical . You have immediate communication through electrical |
|
| 57:42 | but part of the signal is Rather than amplifying you have divergence. |
|
| 57:49 | you have receptor subtype one that's bound the transmitter and receptor subtype two will |
|
| 57:56 | and will affect three intracellular factors Y. Z. You have |
|
| 58:02 | You can have three different neurotransmitters bind three different receptors and all converge in |
|
| 58:08 | same effective system. We used an of norepinephrine was the same neurotransmitter to |
|
| 58:14 | receptors converging on the side like Mp transmitter A. Okay through A one |
|
| 58:27 | Will touch and influence affected three. . And transmitter be they're completely different |
|
| 58:34 | will also find that a factor. you have parallel streams. So if |
|
| 58:39 | need to activate number three and your one is gone. You can still |
|
| 58:45 | to activate number three by transmitter So you have redundancy and parallel streams |
|
| 58:51 | all of these are important in functioning inter salary cascades that get generated |
|
| 58:58 | This is ann's our synaptic transmission and your quiz will cover all of these |
|
| 59:05 | things but obviously we'll focus on things we've talked about two or three times |
|
| 59:10 | went over and mentioned. No you're coming and stuff really well. No |
|
| 59:15 | key concepts and if you follow the you should be just fine on the |
|
| 59:20 | on friday. So if you haven't you in zoom, you haven't attended |
|
| 59:26 | lectures. You have a quiz. friday people get ready. Okay. |
|
| 59:33 | right. So next we're going to start discussing the structure and function of |
|
| 59:43 | cns. And what you have here the left is you have to scale |
|
| 59:50 | animal brains. Rat by the centimeters , a couple of centimeters cat, |
|
| 59:58 | centimeters sheep, chimpanzee human. But a big dolphin about this big and |
|
| 60:08 | can see the surface of the cortex rats and rabbits are relatively, it's |
|
| 60:15 | smooth. And then when you come to the higher order species, |
|
| 60:21 | just kidding. You come up to order species like chimpanzee, nonhuman primates |
|
| 60:28 | humans. You see that it has complex structure with salsa and diary with |
|
| 60:34 | groups and the ridges and this increases surface area and so you can have |
|
| 60:40 | really big brain. But if you have enough of these self and era |
|
| 60:43 | don't have enough of the surface area anatomical special complexity and processing information. |
|
| 60:50 | for knowledge is were still ruling the waves, they would say that dolphin |
|
| 60:57 | take care of that about the same . It's actually bigger brain. But |
|
| 61:04 | say dolphins should rule the the world the elephants and dolphins, definitely rule |
|
| 61:12 | water. So uh and they So especially if you're not in the |
|
| 61:18 | , in the water can be your friend. Um Now, in order |
|
| 61:24 | us to start describing different locations for structures, we have to describe some |
|
| 61:29 | the basic anatomical definitions, such as such as locations. So this is |
|
| 61:35 | or rostrum as a front. The is the posterior cardinal. The tail |
|
| 61:43 | for rat dorsal is flat along horizontal for us dorsal is here and then |
|
| 61:51 | 90° to dorsal in the back, true from medial is in the mid |
|
| 62:00 | in the middle. You go further further away you go you go laterally |
|
| 62:06 | it's important to know these things because somebody told you that you are looking |
|
| 62:09 | lateral gene nucleus nucleus. So it mean anything to you. But they |
|
| 62:15 | tell you it's in the thalamus and lateral nucleus nucleus. And you may |
|
| 62:18 | able then to find that structure that that nucleus by looking at the definition |
|
| 62:24 | is lateral, particular nucleus or ventral nucleus and so on. So the |
|
| 62:31 | that are made through the brain. you can see the serie brooms are |
|
| 62:34 | on the brainstem and spinal cord. cuts that are made through the brain |
|
| 62:38 | mid sagittal horizontal or Kurono three different . That also means something to |
|
| 62:46 | It's like a map for a neuron . You're looking at mid sagittal slice |
|
| 62:50 | exhibit a load. I already know to expect that there's going to be |
|
| 62:53 | Costco and the band for their and can identify them. It's a map |
|
| 62:58 | me. They tell me where I and which way I'm looking at |
|
| 63:01 | Two dimensions, three dimensions, which I'm looking at. So this is |
|
| 63:07 | mid sagittal cotton. These cuts are important because you need to see the |
|
| 63:11 | of the brain, not in just plane but in all three planes so |
|
| 63:16 | you can put the three dimensional structure together, precise anatomy of connectivity in |
|
| 63:20 | brain. Brain stem. Brain You guys love brian stone, we |
|
| 63:29 | it. I love it. It's for the vital functions in the |
|
| 63:35 | We're going to talk about it maybe lecture but without brain stem you wouldn't |
|
| 63:39 | here. And brain stem was actually one of the oldest structures um evolutionarily |
|
| 63:50 | other structures developed later. And if you're looking at the structure year |
|
| 63:55 | a new Neil. New Cortex is . Let's structure that is developing. |
|
| 64:01 | talk about hippocampus, we already mentioned dominant three layers. The campus is |
|
| 64:06 | to turn into a six layer Finally, after all this time but |
|
| 64:14 | over over generations over evolution. Hundreds thousands of years. These circuits of |
|
| 64:23 | violence and developed and they are not and developing. They the Hippocampus in |
|
| 64:30 | years, maybe a six large So it's it's evolving and it's why |
|
| 64:36 | it's also adapting to the environment and is going on. And some structures |
|
| 64:40 | not evolve as much done enough. , so this is a fun little |
|
| 64:48 | that I like to show. I'm you know pinky and the brain every |
|
| 64:54 | that is mentioned here will be on test. You will know it when |
|
| 65:01 | have to take the test. A a people engaged in. So that's |
|
| 66:30 | fun. You already know most of stuff and you'll learn all the rest |
|
| 66:35 | it as we talk about cns different and structures and functions cerebral cerebral |
|
| 66:43 | We'll talk about cerebral hemispheres. It's lateral. So motor command is produced |
|
| 66:49 | the last year, Belinda's fair. will be executed by the right side |
|
| 66:52 | the body sensory information coming in crosses . Also cerebellum on the other |
|
| 67:00 | processes all of the information hips laterally the same side. So let's hear |
|
| 67:04 | on left side, right cerebellum, side of the body. Brain |
|
| 67:09 | Brain stem is where you have a of cerebral cerebellum to from sarah |
|
| 67:15 | the cerebral and from cerebral to A lot of the pathways that interconnecting |
|
| 67:19 | cerebellum. This a lot of times the little brain, the middle |
|
| 67:24 | the motor memory control center and so . So you have a lot of |
|
| 67:30 | there but vital body functions, breathing , thermal regulation heart rate and some |
|
| 67:39 | the reproductive activity. And uh evolutionarily had the brain stem formed before these |
|
| 67:49 | structures were formed peripheral nervous system. love covering in the scores because I |
|
| 67:54 | cover it. Uh It's a somatic motor sensory skin joins muscles. This |
|
| 68:02 | also organs, body's autonomic things that don't really think about that happening. |
|
| 68:08 | lot of internal organs blood vessels So you have massive massive nervous system |
|
| 68:14 | peripheral nervous system. You have massive talking about the gut. You have |
|
| 68:18 | Terek nervous system. It's just concerned control nervous system control that that complexity |
|
| 68:24 | Mesen Terek nervous system is potentially as as A CMS. So a lot |
|
| 68:30 | things we don't know when we're looking the guy we're looking at these things |
|
| 68:33 | still discovering. So it's really a subject matter from this course. When |
|
| 68:40 | talk about C. N. We have to talk about the fact |
|
| 68:43 | C. N. S. And brain tissue is protected. It's protected |
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| 68:47 | a really thick skull. So it some time to break through the |
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| 68:51 | It's also protected by three men On top the closest to the |
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| 68:56 | You have dura mater or hard Then you have a subarachnoid and arachnoid |
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| 69:03 | here. Arachnoid membrane is more like spider like web like projections holding the |
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| 69:09 | modern interconnecting with the p. A pia mater is a jungle mother. |
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| 69:15 | the covering of the very surface of brain. It's usually uh not just |
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| 69:20 | protection but also for some of the uh substances. Now remember we talked |
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| 69:28 | brain trapper nations and we said why you have to open the brain? |
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| 69:33 | you see a lot of vessels and ourselves and capitol pictures that actually are |
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| 69:39 | said early and then run into the tissue. And so if you have |
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| 69:45 | busted blood vessel, you will have clot formation which is referred to as |
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| 69:53 | which will be subdural. And the way you can clean up that one |
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| 69:59 | that coagulated blood is to make a in your skull and to stick a |
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| 70:04 | or to stick some other tool and out. Why would you do it |
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| 70:09 | multiple locations? Because maybe hematoma is and you want to access that area |
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| 70:15 | two points of access or maybe an . They took place in two areas |
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| 70:19 | the brain. Maybe it's an internal . Maybe it's an external injury. |
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| 70:25 | . So but these would be good to perform entrepreneur nation for Mhm ventricular |
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| 70:33 | is another way of not only supplying of the nutrients that are necessary to |
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| 70:38 | brain but also cushioning it with additional . So once the skull gets broken |
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| 70:47 | penetrate pia mater, P A modern is soft but you first have to |
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| 70:54 | dura mater and dura mater is The best way to compare it to |
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| 70:58 | like a hide like an animal So you kind of put your finger |
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| 71:02 | it. You have to cut it a knife or a sharp object pia |
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| 71:07 | is much softer. But in addition that, you also have the brain |
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| 71:11 | is cushioned by the fluids that surrounds . The semi fluid. It's not |
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| 71:17 | like environment, but it is some the thick fluid. Cerebrospinal fluid gets |
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| 71:23 | in the core of plexus, goes the lateral ventricles, the left and |
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| 71:28 | ventricle goes into the third ventricle into spinal canal into the spinal cord gets |
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| 71:35 | , gets reproduced every day essentially you new batch of cerebrospinal fluid and so |
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| 71:39 | you have infection in the brain, will be detected in cerebrospinal fluid. |
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| 71:45 | a lot of times you from meningitis example, which is infection of the |
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| 71:50 | , you would undergo spinal tap and spine which would sample a portion of |
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| 71:56 | the spinal fluid that is in that canal to tell where there is an |
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| 72:00 | or not. Hydrocephalus is potentially another reason why brain transformations were performed in |
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| 72:09 | developing brains. Hydrocephalus is abnormal production this fluid of CSF and as we |
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| 72:16 | the scholars soft during the development and the engorged ventricles will start pushing onto |
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| 72:23 | brain tissue. Brain tissue will start onto the skull and it will produce |
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| 72:28 | enlarge alien like looking skulls in infants early developmental stages. And so the |
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| 72:37 | that you drain the fluid is you put a needle in there and then |
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| 72:40 | drain it into the peritoneal cavity because fluid gets produced and produced and produced |
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| 72:48 | get just metabolism. People can have problem that is semi chronic problem. |
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| 72:55 | This would be another good reason to a brain trapper nation. How do |
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| 72:58 | drain the fluids? And why would enter at multiple times? Because you |
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| 73:02 | to drain the fluids multiple times because fluids keep building up there. So |
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| 73:09 | is something that of course, with modern medicine we can accomplish quite reliably |
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| 73:13 | small needles and catheters and such. and uh hydrocephalus can occur very rarely |
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| 73:22 | abnormal production of CSF, but also be as a consequence of the brain |
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| 73:27 | and France and also can be as consequence of the shaken baby. There's |
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| 73:32 | a thing as shaken baby syndrome when parents get don't know, are crazy |
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| 73:39 | are frustrated or whatever. Start checking baby for a baby to stop screaming |
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| 73:44 | there's no other way to stop the screaming, but shake it. And |
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| 73:49 | it can end up inducing severe hydrocephalus . And I've witnessed a case like |
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| 73:55 | here in texas Children's I see you baby that developed a severe hydrocephalus three |
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| 74:00 | old and was there for at least week when I was when I was |
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| 74:06 | that area. Okay, so we're end here because the next slides really |
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| 74:10 | about the development neural to information and relation of the central nervous system. |
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| 74:17 | come back to it. I'm wishing guys good luck on the quiz |
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| 74:21 | I don't stress review all of the , review all of the lectures and |
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| 74:28 | have opportunity to collect extra points to yourself. Have a great afternoon and |
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| 74:33 | see you all next week. The register and take the quiz tomorrow. |
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| 74:40 | don't know. Uh huh. |
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