| 00:00 | Okay, so this is our third off biology. 43 15. Biology |
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| 00:07 | 63. 15. Um, when I mentioned to you, there |
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| 00:13 | a couple of changes to this draft that will be noted today. |
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| 00:20 | as discussed. All of the exams be virtual exams. So now, |
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| 00:27 | you look at this schedule, all these three days air now set as |
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| 00:35 | dates, the first in the term September 29th, the second midterm, |
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| 00:43 | 29th, largest Tuesday. The second is October 29th. Four months |
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| 00:51 | on Thursday, it's meant turn to the third exam, which is your |
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| 00:58 | exam, but is really equivalent of Mitter and the wage, and also |
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| 01:05 | the material covered that spans mostly The third section of the course is |
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| 01:11 | December 10th. So your class and section are locking in the sense |
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| 01:21 | Having essentially no breaks in the spar reviewing the material. Being really fresh |
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| 01:29 | the material you have. Ah, have a class on December 3rd on |
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| 01:35 | . That would be awesome, December . But it's not a material |
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| 01:40 | actually. We're going to do a exam review session just two days |
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| 01:45 | Having all of this fresh information, will go into taking the virtual examine |
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| 01:52 | Final in term three exam. So will make sure will correct in a |
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| 01:57 | one here on October 29th midterm to of this type of that. It |
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| 02:02 | is the office hours. The date stated was Wednesday when, as I |
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| 02:07 | , it is Thursday after class, we did last Thursday. So we'll |
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| 02:12 | doing these hours were graduate students. will email them later this week, |
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| 02:19 | I have preliminary plants on top of all of the graduate students next Tuesday |
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| 02:25 | class and giving them the additional assignment those course, which is gonna be |
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| 02:33 | and fun. So we preliminarily will with all of the graduate students |
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| 02:39 | And I will send graduate students a email, uh, with zoom linked |
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| 02:46 | join them. Okay, so as uh, taking a sample test of |
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| 02:55 | . First of all, you can go ahead. Teoh cost a |
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| 03:01 | There is information posted there about taking exam and having all of the necessary |
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| 03:09 | . Uh, in addition, I requested from cost, and they graciously |
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| 03:15 | to give a sample test. And believe that the sample test is going |
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| 03:20 | be along the lines off, logging , making sure everything is working and |
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| 03:26 | a couple of questions. You're not . And I'm not. So it |
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| 03:29 | really, I think for you to out the system to make sure that |
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| 03:35 | is working so that the, uh the exam being comes around, when |
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| 03:41 | exam time comes around, you are flustered, and you have already been |
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| 03:47 | the drill, so to speak. , now, during the September 29 |
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| 03:57 | the virtual rules, I believe that going to be able to sign up |
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| 04:01 | take the exam throughout the day. I have not discussed that, and |
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| 04:09 | with Casa, I do not have and full about the times for signing |
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| 04:16 | . I should clear fired this. can get back to you on this |
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| 04:20 | it is going to be something that can sign now throughout the day, |
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| 04:25 | that is something that is going to limited within this 1.5. Uh, |
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| 04:31 | window during which we usually need in . So we will discuss that. |
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| 04:38 | . As I get the confirmation from . As I had information coming in |
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| 04:44 | them as well. Okay, so syllabus just, uh we're maybe falling |
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| 04:50 | little bit behind were supposed to be about neurons, and we had |
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| 04:54 | We really a story was starting to about neurons. Ria one will catch |
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| 04:59 | there and, uh, horses really additional material. So okay with |
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| 05:07 | Stop the recordings of the share So this is the third lecture of |
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| 05:15 | 43 15 and is a reminder of three nurse science giants that we discussed |
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| 05:22 | last lecture eyes. The slide we on the left Camelia Ecology who invented |
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| 05:30 | Golgi. Stain them. Some of properties of the Golgi stain our that |
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| 05:36 | a fraction small fraction of neurons and brain 3 to 5% will actually absorb |
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| 05:42 | die. When that guy gets it's not a so most of the |
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| 05:47 | bodies, but also the damn right processes and the accents that are coming |
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| 05:52 | of the so most, um, will get stand and the familiar |
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| 05:58 | You was a proponent of particular which argued that brain has cytoplasmic |
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| 06:04 | Sort of was one continuous incision with nuclei within a uh in the second |
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| 06:13 | . From the left to ride is room alone. Alcohol is the most |
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| 06:19 | Spanish nurse scientist who was a student familiar bulgy who drew these fantastic drawings |
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| 06:27 | have shown on this slide, including drawing in Little Ramon in Kahala only |
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| 06:33 | able to reconstruct with these drawings the and that Amy morphology off the |
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| 06:40 | But he was also indicating that there's directionality to the signal flow into the |
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| 06:47 | . The Queen Dorantes, individual neurons neural networks in the court taxes in |
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| 06:53 | parts of the brain that he was following the staining with Georgie Stain. |
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| 07:00 | , uh, as you can he depicted that there are, |
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| 07:05 | these, uh, optical done dried ical done dries would be the processes |
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| 07:11 | are going upwards. The cells that shown in the middle image and brown |
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| 07:18 | cold Peron. It'll cells of the times so they're shaped like pyramids in |
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| 07:24 | dimensions, and you have the article drives that a showing of brown at |
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| 07:29 | apex of this Berlin going upwards and have basil Done dries that air coming |
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| 07:35 | the base of this pyramid that are on brown also in black. These |
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| 07:41 | and black with Aris and splitting off processes black processes into small and processes |
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| 07:47 | the accents carrying the information. We discussed the fact that Ramona how was |
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| 07:54 | forward looking and that even over 100 ago, she was already postulating the |
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| 08:02 | of plasticity, postulating that the connectivity not a stagnant, that there are |
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| 08:09 | in the brain that the brain can . And there's a consequence of that |
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| 08:14 | . You have the formacion off new and new contacts between the South the |
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| 08:22 | actual, uh, term synapse and lot about what we know about the |
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| 08:30 | was originally coined by Sir Charles Um and it's also very notable that |
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| 08:37 | three of these gentlemen received noble Um, Camelia Bulgy shared his noble |
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| 08:44 | with Ramon Inca How, Although they not agree in a sparse particular theory |
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| 08:49 | your own doctor, you and search Sherington also on the neurophysiology prize for |
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| 08:56 | and describing what we know no is and a lot more than we know |
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| 09:02 | the synapse. And of course, these great giants are looking at of |
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| 09:10 | , we know that nerves going to muscles based on older experiments can generate |
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| 09:18 | . Ramon Alcohol suspects that there is flow of information potentially through electrical professionals |
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| 09:25 | these cells. But at that point the beginning of the 20th century end |
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| 09:31 | the 19th century, there are no that allow us to report action potentials |
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| 09:37 | the ranson. Therefore, we do know that your aunt's can generate what |
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| 09:43 | now know as action potentials very, fast. And, uh, large |
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| 09:51 | changes within accents. And so most neuron still get very quickly propagated through |
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| 10:01 | interconnected networks and into the synapses with transmission takes place. All of these |
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| 10:08 | . I'm not really bean seen and yet there is a second very important |
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| 10:15 | that contributed Teoh the formation off. we now understand this morning architecture or |
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| 10:23 | architecture of the brain? In this is a missile stain. It |
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| 10:29 | invented, my friends and this so like Golgi stain, Remember, bulgy |
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| 10:36 | stands a small fraction of the but steams all of the processes very |
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| 10:43 | as opposed. Teoh, the, , missile stain that stains all of |
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| 10:50 | sounds, all of the nerds and glia. And then this larger picture |
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| 10:55 | the bottom and you can see there the soma and nuclear subs Saland. |
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| 10:59 | can even see some of the but it is not the best stain |
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| 11:04 | describe the processes and to describe the , more followed you are not in |
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| 11:10 | off individual nerds. Rather, this stain is a tool to describe the |
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| 11:18 | architecture off neural networks off the court and stuck. So if we look |
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| 11:24 | the stop picture here, we have tax. The most outer blue layer |
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| 11:31 | cortical air. Let's see if I , uh, draw something on |
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| 11:41 | but maybe I don't want to, I wonder if the drawing is just |
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| 11:45 | to stay. But the midges and then you see a very sharp |
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| 11:50 | blue ban in one of the This is actually the hippocampus, and |
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| 11:55 | very sharp blue ban indicates very high of neuronal so months in one particular |
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| 12:01 | and if you look a little bit the side, uh, off that |
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| 12:07 | is sharply stained structure, you kind of ah, folded layers. |
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| 12:12 | on top of another like this, ? And those layers actually a six |
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| 12:18 | that are part of the thigh. most a lot O J. Nicholas |
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| 12:21 | of the columns to with Missile stained it actually allows you to see the |
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| 12:27 | architecture, the directionality off these different on that works four billion brockman after |
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| 12:36 | was the one that used extensively missile in order to describe uh different regions |
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| 12:45 | the human cerebral four tax and he them into 52 discrete areas. |
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| 12:52 | in this case, way talked about knowledge is for knowledge is said that |
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| 12:57 | bombs in the skull will represent different of function. The billion. Rodman |
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| 13:04 | that different architectural arrangements and layer densities layer connectivity represents different localization of function |
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| 13:13 | the brain, and you have 52 areas based on distinctive nerve cell structures |
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| 13:21 | characteristics, and arrangements in layers are specific orientation. So this is called |
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| 13:29 | architectures, side toe architect tonic methods different functional areas are determined by observing |
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| 13:39 | in the structures in the structures of brain networks and structures. The |
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| 13:49 | Okay, so home or question, fact, to home. More questions |
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| 13:59 | need to find out which Bronfman's area . Number. Broad months area corresponds |
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| 14:09 | Broca's area, which is related. , expressive aphasia and what number, |
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| 14:17 | and broke us San Turkey Tectonic maps learning this area, which is |
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| 14:27 | Teoh Receptive If Asia yeah, so again, this is your home or |
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| 14:33 | and, uh, you can find yourself. And don't be surprised if |
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| 14:40 | of these homework questions on one way another show up as, um, |
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| 14:48 | questions. So this is for you learn about which areas were present. |
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| 14:54 | two areas that you already know in brain with numbers be serious there, |
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| 15:00 | by the site architecture and abroad ones . We talked about the fact that |
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| 15:08 | with the Stenz, you were not able Teoh distinguish and to visualize the |
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| 15:16 | absence. And so if you look the start of standard like microscope, |
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| 15:20 | resolution of 0.1 Michael meters, we that the diameter of the neuron is |
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| 15:27 | 10 Michael meters across and the space their US which is what is that |
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| 15:33 | between their arts. It's, um space between neurons is the synapse is |
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| 15:42 | millimeters. So if you have a off 0.1, my guru meters. |
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| 15:49 | what you're looking at is much, smaller than 0.1 my computers, but |
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| 15:56 | 29 m instead, you're not going be able to visualize the synapse when |
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| 16:02 | microscopes are invented it. So in middle of the 20th century, we |
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| 16:08 | have a possibility to resolve Aziz much 0.1 nana meters in spades. |
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| 16:16 | would that allows to dio It allows to actually visualize individual synapses and beyond |
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| 16:26 | microscopes. You also had, come focal microscopes that were being built |
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| 16:33 | come focal microscopes also allow us to individual sin abscess from focal microscopes that |
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| 16:41 | built on Ah ray off. There some very sophisticated, uh, microscopes |
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| 16:48 | visualized very small planes and very high . But most of our discussion on |
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| 16:56 | slide is actually about these very specific , structures and neuron center called den |
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| 17:05 | and dendritic spines. In a, and C. If you look at |
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| 17:11 | photographs these air, electron microbe, crow or photo grass, you see |
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| 17:20 | things. First of all, if see something that says P has d |
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| 17:25 | an arrow that stands for pasta, density, pasta, synaptic density. |
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| 17:30 | these dendritic spines since you see her pasta topic. But you can see |
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| 17:35 | large dendrite on the right and all these different times to spines, different |
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| 17:41 | , different arrangement intensities and shapes of out of these den drives. These |
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| 17:48 | spines will contain pasta Matic density, , thes and posson optic densities are |
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| 17:55 | with receptors. A lot of times protein receptor channels then will be receiving |
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| 18:03 | across the synaptic class on the right the image. What you see |
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| 18:09 | you see in rad these small vesicles these three red small testicles will contain |
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| 18:19 | translators. And that's they near the membrane. You actually see the fusion |
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| 18:25 | these Vastic Austin, the neurotransmitter release the synaptic last, and then there |
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| 18:31 | stabbed to some the pasta. And are three different types off. |
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| 18:40 | these are three different types off, , shamed dendritic spines, and these |
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| 18:48 | spines are the most distant aliveness. as we learn later there, someone |
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| 18:54 | from the whole soma and the downright all of these dendritic spines will be |
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| 19:01 | even excited Terry or inhibitory contacts from cells from other access. So the |
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| 19:09 | part that contains vesicles is an axe of another south or pre synaptic example |
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| 19:16 | , that is, trust the the Pasta Matic, destiny and |
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| 19:21 | Unethically, you have these dendritic spines the good experience air. Very |
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| 19:26 | because computation happens along with enduring tree some of it and drilling trees so |
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| 19:33 | of the neurons can have as many 100,000 synapses and tens of thousands of |
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| 19:41 | . Tens of thousands of these that experience may get activated different France or |
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| 19:46 | the same time by excited, very medicine, inhibitory neurotransmitters and also no |
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| 19:54 | . That will also affect the longer activity within the dendritic spines, Dem |
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| 20:00 | and the 1000 General. Okay, do exp Eines is also the most |
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| 20:11 | element along, uh, in the neuron. These air the spines that |
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| 20:19 | change the fastest. In fact, there is executing with them two |
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| 20:30 | percent African on past synaptic neuron, that activity is high levels of |
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| 20:38 | Then this relationship in this particular synapse going to get strengthened. And that |
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| 20:46 | that this synapse itself may become This synapse itself may change shape in |
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| 20:53 | synapse itself. They start expressing different of receptors or did a different step |
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| 21:01 | nerve transmitter release and aspires their mouth their release. So strengthening the communication |
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| 21:09 | the synapse strengthening the synaptic signaling and synaptic efficacy is referred to us potentially |
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| 21:17 | . Strengthening the synapses and developing stronger between two neurons is a part of |
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| 21:25 | learning. Process off memorizing things off new parents in the brain that represent |
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| 21:32 | that have birth, represent motor speech patterns on listening tires, behavioral |
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| 21:41 | and so on. So the aces expanse of the most valuable aspects the |
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| 21:48 | plastic aspects in neurons. Okay, if you strengthen them, you potentially |
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| 21:55 | them in a school potentiality shin, the efficacy and the signalling and the |
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| 22:02 | this fall potentially ation. And it's normal that if you activated, if |
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| 22:08 | perform a certain task if you repeat certain task. It's not only that |
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| 22:13 | synapses, small, strengthen and 100 may become more meaningful, uh, |
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| 22:20 | the rest of the cell, because is occupying a lot more space and |
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| 22:24 | is getting more activity. But also can grow new 100 expands. It's |
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| 22:29 | growing new dinner. It expires is a part of the normal process also |
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| 22:34 | to increasing the efficacy between the two that are communicating, increasing and strengthening |
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| 22:42 | sin houses that are active and vice . The synapses are not as |
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| 22:49 | and so there is not that much going on the green neuron a in |
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| 22:55 | and neuron B and blue. Then stolen assets. Because you stop performing |
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| 23:01 | task for you. Stop memorizing something you want to forget something. This |
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| 23:08 | assets will get weakened and their sin will also go away. So, |
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| 23:14 | , the weakening of the synapses, cold depression, the strengthening of the |
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| 23:21 | When they communicate more, they become school potentiality shin and the weakening of |
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| 23:27 | two synapses with the contact becomes meaning in Greece. Increasingly so in this |
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| 23:33 | actually convince appear and then drug expires shrink and then did expire. Skin |
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| 23:39 | themselves and the number of injured experience also decrease. So you have inner |
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| 23:47 | concept are synaptic potentially ation. You use short term synaptic, potentially Asian |
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| 23:53 | you strengthen synapses for short time term say you memorized that phone number 71374371 |
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| 24:03 | one. I don't know what number Please don't call. But then you |
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| 24:08 | that number and then somebody asked So what's that number again? |
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| 24:12 | you just got it maybe five minutes . So you strengthen and you maintain |
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| 24:17 | in the synapses. For short you can have short term potentially ation |
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| 24:22 | you repeat the task. And you this number because it's your your uncle's |
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| 24:27 | and you call them all the time is in grade. In your long |
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| 24:30 | memory, you will have long potentially eight. So activities potentially ated |
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| 24:35 | it stays potentially ated long term. these an absence and potentially more sin |
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| 24:40 | of being grown along this pathway of and depressions like into let's say |
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| 24:49 | So you have also shortened depression we short term memory loss or depressing activity |
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| 24:54 | the synapse destroyed term. Or you long term depression which could be like |
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| 25:00 | tow, long term memory loss. essentially, what I'm telling you that |
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| 25:06 | potentially ation and development of synapses increase synaptic transmission. Increase in synaptic number |
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| 25:14 | a cellular substrate for learning and Whilst depression, uh, synaptic |
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| 25:25 | the shrinkage, the synaptic space and in the dendritic spines could be |
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| 25:33 | Teoh forgetting. And by the forgetting is a very important protective mechanisms |
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| 25:39 | our bodies because a lot of times need to make progress on forward by |
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| 25:48 | the past. Welcome back and talk the drink expires quite extensively, and |
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| 25:53 | will see that it's a part of development, and you have a certain |
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| 25:59 | along these degrade expires. And if architecture is impaired, you can ask |
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| 26:04 | their neurological conditions that associative unassociated with and densities of the shapes of his |
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| 26:12 | centuries of autism spectrum disorders that will later in this land. What I'm |
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| 26:19 | is in a microscope that is located my laboratory at the University of |
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| 26:26 | which is neurophysiology and your imaging the for from this microscope, you |
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| 26:32 | green line. So this green line , uh, under the lasts and |
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| 26:36 | have the eyepieces from the front, can look in and maybe you will |
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| 26:41 | something, or maybe you will And the reason why you would not |
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| 26:45 | something is because we describe the fact you cannot just visualize. If you |
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| 26:50 | this grain and you just slice the brain of stress loosened. You |
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| 26:55 | not be able to see neurons, that's what we said. This stain |
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| 26:59 | the game and the brain is mainly the stain. You have to stand |
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| 27:03 | the lost neurons unless you use sophisticated . And you used across big mirror |
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| 27:10 | here that a picture than the microscope a differential infrared contrast my across to |
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| 27:17 | where you capture the images using infrared so you don't have we don't have |
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| 27:24 | vision, but these cameras have infrared , and when has shown here on |
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| 27:29 | right are the two images that contained odds on you can see these neurons |
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| 27:35 | approached with micro electrodes, so if were to zoom in closer underneath this |
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| 27:42 | . Here, you would see three of a small electrodes pointing underneath the |
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| 27:51 | of jacked up. And this is they're pointing their these Michael Electra Zukor |
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| 27:59 | electrics and allow us to contact individual and to form, uh, to |
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| 28:08 | connections to individual 1000 to record electrical from individual South's. And this recordings |
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| 28:18 | referred. Teoh asshole Cell Patch Clamp . That's the name for these types |
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| 28:23 | recordings, where you have an electrode recording electrical activity and changes in electrical |
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| 28:32 | across the cell membrane. It's called whole Self Ash Clamp recordings or interest |
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| 28:39 | recordings where you're inserting, if electrode right into the inside off of |
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| 28:45 | . And so underneath this objective, have three Elektrim start getting three different |
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| 28:52 | . You couldn't think more than maybe Somebody has done eight simultaneous interest cellular |
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| 29:01 | . You have a small slice preparation is made from rodent brain. |
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| 29:08 | obviously, you can't do these types recordings. No cell patch clamp, |
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| 29:14 | cellular level self Ashkelon recordings in vivo his devoted a whole animal. Most |
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| 29:20 | the recording center down the electrodes instead being placed inside the South or passed |
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| 29:26 | to the memories on the South are placed right outside of the south. |
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| 29:31 | these types of recordings air referred to extra cellular electrical recordings. They're picking |
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| 29:38 | information that is coming from the but outside off the south. So |
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| 29:44 | acting as an antenna, listening to that Sallis staying rather than directly it |
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| 29:51 | a stethoscope beside the South listening to direct heartbeat. So these air the |
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| 29:58 | techniques now in humans, there's really whole sell recordings. Whole cell or |
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| 30:05 | recordings are done mostly in animals. June, it's. Most of the |
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| 30:11 | are extra cellular, in fact, . Some of the neurological conditions, |
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| 30:17 | apple emcees are epilepsy will be one your neurological disorders that suggest to stay |
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| 30:23 | half a page to page two in Pelosi. To qualify or to diagnose |
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| 30:31 | epilepsy, you may need to do is called an electricity hologram recording R |
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| 30:39 | g. Recording electrolysis of follow ground E e. G. Recording. |
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| 30:45 | that case, the electricity being placed the outside of the skull and you're |
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| 30:50 | up the information that has been filtered the skull. The only other way |
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| 30:55 | you can actually record activity in the is an unfortunate Jesus. If you |
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| 31:00 | brain surgery for Kirsten, a genesis two more a genesis of some |
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| 31:08 | War is used for tumor removal if you're going brain surgery, where |
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| 31:13 | part of the brain is being resected cut out, such as in the |
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| 31:19 | of ample etc. Where the faux with a part of the brain that |
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| 31:24 | generating the seizures is being eliminated using techniques. In that case, electors |
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| 31:33 | be placed intracranial er inside and on surface of the brain in order to |
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| 31:40 | the very precise area off that uh, a spot that is generating |
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| 31:49 | . And it's causing trouble for the of the brain. So this in |
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| 31:54 | techniques and using infrared, my cross , we can visualize individual cells and |
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| 31:59 | electric physiological recording techniques, we can activity from these individual cells and using |
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| 32:06 | sophisticated a dual camera setups. We also record fluorescent activity time. |
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| 32:13 | neuronal network says I have done, I'll show you later in the |
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| 32:17 | um, of my record days So also matched Kwame Intracellular in |
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| 32:26 | mostly extra cellular recordings and human humans. It's mostly e g. |
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| 32:33 | there's a need for surgery and then will have intracranial recordings. And this |
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| 32:39 | me of something quite interesting, that I would like Teoh share with |
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| 32:45 | may be the way we see the . Maybe how we understand the brain |
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| 32:51 | we understand the brain functions is is and always, always, and not |
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| 32:57 | me, but believe that 21st century be in the century of understanding was |
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| 33:02 | complex structure the structure and it has of neurons that has trillions of |
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| 33:11 | Uh, somebody says they just wish nearly presentation right before class started. |
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| 33:19 | , he's doing crazy stuff with the neural link. OK, so |
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| 33:25 | I'm really appreciative of all of these . They're fantastic reactions that, you |
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| 33:31 | , there isn't a split off um the world is perceiving these kind |
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| 33:38 | advances, whether they, um bordering Mexico. For me, where I |
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| 33:49 | the benefit of something like this is cases where you have severe loss off |
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| 33:57 | function, where you have, paralysis and where the brain is still |
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| 34:08 | . So can this technique of essentially and informing on the parts of the |
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| 34:19 | and maybe informing parts of the uh, for the benefits in pieces |
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| 34:27 | newer degeneration and severe neurological dysfunctions and , I see a huge huge |
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| 34:34 | Therefore, technologies like this. So just thought it was interesting that this |
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| 34:41 | just just one kind of ah viral the last couple of days and I |
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| 34:47 | Teoh share this with you. Now we have is we have reviewed and |
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| 34:56 | disciplinary historical development of neuroscience. We some stops along the way off the |
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| 35:02 | of science and General Don just neuroscience key stops. Some key figures that |
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| 35:09 | discussed it contributed to the modern view neuroscience. We know that based segmental |
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| 35:16 | because of the brain imaging, a to small cortical areas. But we |
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| 35:22 | that more cognitively complex tasks and it involves a lot more interconnections, |
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| 35:28 | lot more networks in the brain and definitely actually more than 10% of the |
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| 35:35 | if needed. Well, we haven't brain. We have both. We |
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| 35:38 | serial and parallel distributed processing um, distributing processing means that you have several |
|
| 35:47 | pathways that are processing Simula tapper An example would be three times of |
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| 35:53 | cones in the retina, so you three color concert comes for all of |
|
| 35:59 | U color combinations that you have seen the outside world in the visible |
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| 36:06 | And as you lose one of those cones, you don't lose all of |
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| 36:11 | color vision. Your color vision gets . Your color vision gets all third |
|
| 36:17 | others that have three types of cones are functional with you don't lose color |
|
| 36:23 | . You have to lose all three of color calls all three of the |
|
| 36:28 | processing pathways to completely lose the color , and they run in parallel anatomically |
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| 36:37 | in parallel In the keys off, , from the I to the thalamus |
|
| 36:43 | the occipital, low serial processing is back. That information gets increasingly Lauren |
|
| 36:53 | as it is being processed by higher processing centers. So the organs that |
|
| 37:00 | the sensor information This is our Our eyes, they're capturing the |
|
| 37:07 | This is a function of the managed to capture the lights to determine |
|
| 37:12 | there is bright spots and dark spots light. But if you want to |
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| 37:17 | the retina retina, what are you ? First of all, Red in |
|
| 37:21 | gonna tell you I'm only seeing half the visual field, so I don't |
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| 37:25 | a full view. Second below is tell you I'm not really seen. |
|
| 37:31 | of the details, the death, motion I am seeing a map of |
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| 37:36 | luminescence readiness seeing the map of the wide, dark, wide, |
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| 37:43 | When that signal from the retina goes the optic nerve and goes into the |
|
| 37:49 | MERS at the level of the that information increasingly becomes more complex by |
|
| 37:56 | time that information from the Salomon's gets the back of the brain and the |
|
| 38:00 | lobe, that's when you have the off the visual image. But for |
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| 38:06 | to understand the movement, the sound the changes in light and the smells |
|
| 38:12 | maybe associated with that environment that really the entire picture, even the visual |
|
| 38:18 | you have to now, after they and more sophisticated parts of the brain |
|
| 38:23 | will be merging that information from the senses such as, uh, monetary |
|
| 38:30 | , uh, investigatory on site. thing here I sometimes use has some |
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| 38:37 | information, some cool images or so you feel free Teoh to utilize |
|
| 38:45 | . When I said that we really record activity in the brain when I |
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| 38:49 | is that we really can't record directly activity with electron probes inside the |
|
| 38:55 | But we actually can. Non invasively invasively record brain activity using two |
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| 39:02 | Pat positron emission tomography and functional or F Emery, magnetic resonance imaging |
|
| 39:13 | these imaging techniques. What they do they reveal the brain maps. So |
|
| 39:19 | you see here is you see the , same individual and the map in |
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| 39:26 | and red off the neurons and neural that are active during a specific |
|
| 39:31 | This case in individual displaying some video . Then he's non when she's |
|
| 39:37 | are immersed in the virtual reality environment on the ride, the game changes |
|
| 39:45 | the rules and environment changes so that becomes virtual reality. And as you |
|
| 39:51 | see from left to right, there's change in the map in the cortical |
|
| 39:57 | . Although the game hasn't changed, the dimensions And maybe that virtual environment |
|
| 40:04 | changed and the map and the brain changed Now to it almost looks like |
|
| 40:08 | became more specific and we were confined a smaller Harris of the Brandis compare |
|
| 40:14 | of the left. So when these bed and half a Marai show us |
|
| 40:20 | that you don't have to cut a of the brain off the CIA, |
|
| 40:25 | Actually, this is an image that reproduced after the pattern and Mariah |
|
| 40:31 | And of course, they confirm the functions that carried out the specific areas |
|
| 40:36 | the brain. We now know that function ist of served by more than |
|
| 40:40 | year old pathway. And that's why have parallel processing when one time always |
|
| 40:46 | are the pathways may compensate. And some instances in the past, construction |
|
| 40:52 | was hard to see because of these . Victoria Factor. Because of the |
|
| 40:57 | pathways that we're carrying the information on , even things like emotions are |
|
| 41:06 | You have temporal lobe epilepsy and micro studies of the temporal lobe and certain |
|
| 41:12 | of the vortex, like a big that when you stimulate them, you |
|
| 41:16 | devote very complex emotions. So you a code and you have a map |
|
| 41:22 | emotional now, not just a physical , not just the map of playing |
|
| 41:27 | game or looking at something. We have emotional map that is represented inside |
|
| 41:33 | neuron. So when I said that map changes, I think I talked |
|
| 41:37 | you about an example of making a 20 years ago. Were using your |
|
| 41:41 | 2030 years ago if you use the eight hours to 10 hours a |
|
| 41:46 | 30 years ago, this was a . You had a job off, |
|
| 41:51 | know, telephone our operator. Now something that we do on a daily |
|
| 41:59 | . So you can imagine a distant was very different looking 30 years ago |
|
| 42:05 | you were making a phone call coming dialing the number, talking to somebody |
|
| 42:09 | you happen they're not talking to them 23 hours looking at your phone that |
|
| 42:13 | phones stayed on the wall because it not moving with almost stuck in the |
|
| 42:19 | or on the desk was no more that was small ball. So the |
|
| 42:26 | for the handling of the phone is exchange is very different, and everything |
|
| 42:31 | about connectivity. Is everything is about conscious and things like that. You |
|
| 42:37 | see that I wanna Maps are changing our mouths are changing in significant |
|
| 42:41 | And given the fact that you have interconnections in the June expires and potentially |
|
| 42:47 | and depression or plasticity, Integrated spice some of these changes are short |
|
| 42:52 | Some of these changes a long But some of these changes a |
|
| 42:56 | such as when the technology interest into world that imposes changes onto the cortical |
|
| 43:03 | it proposes changes onto our behavior. it imposes changes around social interactions and |
|
| 43:09 | even changes the emotional. That's as no, no, um, functions |
|
| 43:16 | of multiple processes that occurred in specific of the brain. When we talk |
|
| 43:20 | elementary operations and doing things, they small parts of the brain. But |
|
| 43:29 | small operations and even things that we sometimes seem less we will think about |
|
| 43:37 | the seamless, and we don't even attention. But sometimes you will be |
|
| 43:42 | at the watch, talking at the time and at the same time, |
|
| 43:49 | even reading this scrolling through the news listening to music so we can do |
|
| 43:54 | lot of things. And a lot times we're gonna think about it like |
|
| 43:57 | my God, I'm dedicating so much my energy right now listening. I'm |
|
| 44:02 | the process of listening. We can a lot of functions that are pretty |
|
| 44:08 | seem less than in generating these different activity in the brain, representing different |
|
| 44:15 | . So would you, if we at that pad positron emission tomography images |
|
| 44:19 | looking at words, no surprise A low blind some. This is |
|
| 44:23 | primary visual cortical processing area, speaking words, very close to vertical to |
|
| 44:30 | area off course and holding the frontal and the motor cortex. If you |
|
| 44:36 | to words done for a low, know the temple near your year. |
|
| 44:40 | is where the auditor information that's being . But listen and see what happens |
|
| 44:44 | you're thinking of words. You can that the not has changed when you |
|
| 44:51 | of the words. There is no lobe activity at all. The duty |
|
| 44:58 | dumper load has shifted and changed its in the same for the duty and |
|
| 45:03 | frontal. Oh, from the motor , it has shifted to a lot |
|
| 45:08 | frontal areas, so you can see some primary function focusing on something in |
|
| 45:15 | one primary area. But then when start blending these modalities together, you're |
|
| 45:22 | only looking and reading the words, now you're thinking and maybe you're thinking |
|
| 45:26 | what you're going to say now that , changes of representation and the active |
|
| 45:33 | shifts to different parts of the brain shown here is that if you look |
|
| 45:40 | even in the previous slide, when talk about the good expires, intern |
|
| 45:43 | . Have three different shapes. Describe this martial thin, trodden |
|
| 45:49 | This also means puncture. So the of the sponsor density, their location |
|
| 45:55 | dictates a function. It is how this dendrite is going to process synaptic |
|
| 46:01 | . How is this done, Going to integrate the information from tens |
|
| 46:06 | thousands of synapses that excited in an and informed the Soma to make a |
|
| 46:13 | to fire, not the fire? is the question that is the question |
|
| 46:17 | neuronal cell was after May well come that answer where we talk about actually |
|
| 46:23 | , we can visualize single sounds weaken s single sin houses in modern. |
|
| 46:29 | , my cross, Caribbean and modern cross to be mounted. Viva. |
|
| 46:32 | in modern my cross to be shown on the right, we can also |
|
| 46:35 | even single mall. We can trace proteins moving through this through this through |
|
| 46:42 | possible membranes. Because there's significant amount dynamics and movement of these pro dance |
|
| 46:47 | the plaza remembering So the medical specialists the nervous system, I think we |
|
| 46:55 | have this Constance already before, uh, I'm not going. |
|
| 47:02 | go over this again, but you t do the slide. This is |
|
| 47:05 | for yourself to understand with different disciplines some disciplines and degrees and career. |
|
| 47:12 | pursuits that you may have are in of you and the slide. If |
|
| 47:16 | interested in Nero science related careers been traditional and maybe not so traditional, |
|
| 47:25 | emergent nurses. Two years, maybe the emergent markets and the emergence |
|
| 47:31 | uh, just, for example, differences in, uh, drugs in |
|
| 47:38 | countries with differences and access to cannabis and different states, all of |
|
| 47:44 | things will play into many different sciences to neuroscience. Sister, your prosthetics |
|
| 47:50 | recovering or of engineering for building new . New economy If you're trying to |
|
| 47:56 | goods and your thinking about brands and package goods physical Farron before recovery |
|
| 48:04 | computational science and modeling off the So when this nice, uh, |
|
| 48:11 | clothes that I have here in this also and again, we have to |
|
| 48:17 | a lot of animals said animal research gotten us where we are involved in |
|
| 48:23 | . Science. Um, Warren Dane , of course. So I'm going |
|
| 48:31 | ? Uh, sure, Yes. now gonna go and talk about your |
|
| 48:44 | and glia more specifically. So we talked about Paris comprised 10% of all |
|
| 48:50 | the cells in the brain. And Surprise, 90% of all of the |
|
| 48:56 | , and, uh, your OnStar chips and a chocolate chip cookie. |
|
| 49:01 | discussed the difference. Well, really . They have very specific anatomical features |
|
| 49:07 | as Don dries and the good expires my eliminated AC stones and semantic |
|
| 49:16 | But neurons also have some very classical anatomical feature a sword and I also |
|
| 49:23 | a nucleus in the middle that's surrounded my Anaconda area Russian, the plasma |
|
| 49:28 | in that extended with them to block with right, Mazzone's holly ride with |
|
| 49:34 | complexes glow Geo Perata's moving the plasma um, that contains a lot of |
|
| 49:40 | , and you see these micro tubules forming and running into the axe |
|
| 49:45 | and there would be micro tubules would extending into the device as well. |
|
| 49:48 | lot of this has to do with transportation and transporting most of the things |
|
| 49:54 | are biased, synthetically and genetically produced transcribed and translated at the level of |
|
| 50:01 | so much the level of the nucleus then transported into these very distant |
|
| 50:07 | So you can imagine that the distance the Soma do a on end on |
|
| 50:15 | could be tens of centimetres long. could be a yard long. You're |
|
| 50:21 | about Axel from the spinal cord that to the tip of your toe in |
|
| 50:26 | R, a seven footer basketball So you're talking about doing very long |
|
| 50:32 | and supply a lot of now unless needs to be delivered through these accidents |
|
| 50:37 | other processes into the distant parts of cell This is some of the basic |
|
| 50:43 | just to remind you. Jeans get , your notes transcribed. The genes |
|
| 50:47 | translation from our in a conscription Intel's, uh, making our day |
|
| 50:55 | from are in a unique message, slicing process That happens when you |
|
| 51:01 | I run a into messenger, our , increased class variants and the normal |
|
| 51:06 | variance. And that's why maybe we slight variations. Essentially, that we |
|
| 51:11 | in, you know, never works are normal variations. But there is |
|
| 51:16 | supplies very answers this during the uh, process the entrance or not |
|
| 51:23 | out and excellence or not probably spies . You can have pathological conditions that |
|
| 51:29 | basically do, Teoh explains. And, uh, during this |
|
| 51:35 | and as we're looking at this, thing I would encourage you is |
|
| 51:40 | Remind yourselves that discussion that we had Cove it and how do viruses replicated |
|
| 51:47 | the host cells? So how do this enter into the cells? And |
|
| 51:52 | do the replicant IDs? And south them, you'll say, Wait a |
|
| 51:56 | . But didn't we talk about how virus covered 19 may not enter into |
|
| 52:01 | brain? We said that the article we learned that specifically from Boston |
|
| 52:05 | suggested that Go the 19 Destin on into the Grable does not cost significant |
|
| 52:12 | , but rather it causes. It's stomach hypoxia ischemia, which leads to |
|
| 52:18 | degeneration on your own ourselves, as to previous studies that have indicated that |
|
| 52:26 | dust cross through the blood brain The virus not only designed, but |
|
| 52:31 | causes instant ful Linus like visas. politic reasons causes massive inflammation of the |
|
| 52:38 | and, as a consequence, neuronal . So to supper arguments One enters |
|
| 52:47 | the brain, causes inflammation and sold the one that doesn't enter the |
|
| 52:51 | It deprives oxygen and without oxygen, said. I So so how this |
|
| 53:01 | just remind yourself, says We're talking this transcription translation and how Just remind |
|
| 53:06 | of the viruses inspector. Relevant team over the whole cells in the question |
|
| 53:13 | the unanswered question whether it is penetrating the brain tissue and taking over the |
|
| 53:19 | , no cells as well with their material. In many instances, this |
|
| 53:25 | infections also are part of normal and we have beans, in fact |
|
| 53:31 | so many times during the course off that we carry a part of the |
|
| 53:37 | code that belongs Thio Thio Thio Violent . In fact, some of the |
|
| 53:45 | immune responses, some of the body responses that we have some of the |
|
| 53:50 | and our systems produce are likely to a consequence of violent factions about the |
|
| 53:57 | history. Viral infections also caused the of chemicals and plants of plans get |
|
| 54:04 | by viruses. They start producing certain , and we start consuming starting chemicals |
|
| 54:12 | There's a co evolution of virus nature and humanity That's ongoing. And |
|
| 54:18 | in the middle of this epidemic project , roughy, arpel, ribosomes and |
|
| 54:26 | Rivasseau. More complex tests within the particularly like a mentioned council in |
|
| 54:31 | Your It's a very active neurons consume lot of energy glucose, so the |
|
| 54:38 | is about 3% of the total body . It consumes about 20% of the |
|
| 54:46 | body energy and metabolizes consumes 20% of that we consume. Goes to feed |
|
| 54:54 | brain, so to speak. So is a system that is driven outside |
|
| 54:58 | the equilibrium in so many respects Uh, is a system that is |
|
| 55:06 | system on this random walk with me excitation and inhibition and different parts of |
|
| 55:12 | brain lighting up on electrochemical communication that in the process of one summer. |
|
| 55:19 | is done and gets pushed out through nuclear force and can be become a |
|
| 55:24 | created produce award can become a newly membrane associated protein. And for us |
|
| 55:31 | relevant is that we will be talking Prodi and channels on a lot of |
|
| 55:36 | Prodi and channels are don't through this that was destined for them to be |
|
| 55:40 | member of associating. So when I you how Annapolis I referred to you |
|
| 55:47 | quite sophisticated master and I said, , you can look at these maps |
|
| 55:51 | which we will see in these maps different genes and and being stained |
|
| 55:57 | But maybe it's difficult to understand what genetic or micro race staining is, |
|
| 56:02 | Sybil explaining and rather simple terms that you we're talking about a micro array |
|
| 56:11 | you have is you have this micro that's a microscopic plate, and inside |
|
| 56:16 | microscopic plate you have even smaller Okay, a tiny tiny micro microscopic |
|
| 56:26 | of wealth inside. And you can 40,000 of these little holes in this |
|
| 56:32 | for stopping played and in these little 40,000 holds you can out of synthetic |
|
| 56:38 | because we live in the post Ulama . So we know, uh is |
|
| 56:43 | specific synthetic gin a day and um, sequences. Uh, we're |
|
| 56:51 | for what genes were looking for. sequences code for specifically. So we |
|
| 56:57 | of 40,000 off these 40,000 of the , and they snippets into each one |
|
| 57:03 | these wells and we take two brain, wall and brain to imagine |
|
| 57:10 | brain to is a brain after traumatic injury that want to see what are |
|
| 57:17 | differences in genetics in these 40,000 genes the normal brain versus the brain bad |
|
| 57:27 | traumatic brain injury. So you isolate brain material you have vial of them |
|
| 57:35 | in a from bio brain one M in a from brain to. And |
|
| 57:40 | you try to master SMR in day use synthetic piece off DNA that is |
|
| 57:46 | inside one of these 40,000 wells with specific sequence specific gene sequence. So |
|
| 57:54 | that synthetic, the n aging sequence M. R. In a. |
|
| 57:58 | you have a visual code. If wow it has a florescent tag glows |
|
| 58:05 | . That means that the gene has expression and brain to that particular gene |
|
| 58:11 | that while has reduced expression on too. If that while shows a |
|
| 58:18 | florescent signal, that means that there no change between the gene expression that |
|
| 58:25 | gene is unaltered. There's 40,000 genes interest 40,000 while sitting here. And |
|
| 58:31 | you have green, which is jean reduced expression and brain one so you |
|
| 58:37 | look at reduced expression. You can at increased expression. Er, so |
|
| 58:42 | that gives you gifts? You an map of what is happening to these |
|
| 58:48 | rain related genes. What examining to . So it's a great way. |
|
| 58:54 | call this a very sophisticated Velcro, the complementary gene sequences from synthetic DNA |
|
| 59:00 | you've placed in a while have to with a complimentary and exact sequence from |
|
| 59:06 | Nay, that's coming from the biological . This is very sophisticated BALCO. |
|
| 59:13 | gives you great understanding off the overall . The sun. It gives you |
|
| 59:19 | ft view off the brain. But problem with this it zgray to start |
|
| 59:27 | one. Are the jeans in a the problem Off the visit, you |
|
| 59:30 | have 400 genes that changed in the brain injury Brain even down, regulated |
|
| 59:38 | regulated. Then you will say, , well, how do I pick |
|
| 59:43 | out of these? 400. Why I pick one? So you look |
|
| 59:47 | numbers in the wall share like minus uh, minus 1.79 or 0.54 |
|
| 59:56 | So you look at the Jean said the biggest changes that where the even |
|
| 60:05 | reduced or largely increased in expression. let's say, out of these 400 |
|
| 60:13 | saw that only 20 of them have made a significant changes. So you |
|
| 60:19 | the feeling is to follow these storen . Now, remember that in |
|
| 60:24 | a cautionary warning. Big things that observed doesn't mean they're as important or |
|
| 60:33 | most important than some small things that that are associated with other things that |
|
| 60:39 | change. Big things could be equally important. So it's a bit |
|
| 60:44 | ah, you know, trying to and trying to fish for a subset |
|
| 60:51 | genes that has relevance for that specific . So that's a now you realize |
|
| 60:58 | five of these genes are very well and traumatic brain injury, a really |
|
| 61:03 | traumatic brain injury, and you see your five genes that are key for |
|
| 61:07 | . B I traumatic brain injuries and you find out that one of |
|
| 61:11 | is the most change gene. Another number 5 13. And so and |
|
| 61:18 | your mentor may say, I'm interested this gene. So forget going after |
|
| 61:23 | biggest change. I have a hunch there is a pathway associated with this |
|
| 61:28 | is more important. You may be pursue this particular, uh, you |
|
| 61:35 | literacy, sir. Just you dio of the resource is jean. Resource |
|
| 61:40 | and gnashing of the changes for specific of disorders that you can find a |
|
| 61:46 | and want to try to hone Because a lot of other subsequent experiments |
|
| 61:51 | you will do, for example, your PhD, which may take you |
|
| 61:55 | years, maybe just on one or genes. So once you set up |
|
| 62:00 | promise to send your time away from micro array of 400 alter genes. |
|
| 62:06 | then you spend the next 3 to years from one or two because you |
|
| 62:13 | homed in our prosthesis that there's matching that there's some other publications that indicate |
|
| 62:19 | you to pursue, um, specific gene or another one for your |
|
| 62:29 | Golgi apparatus is where you have post processing and protean sorting and smooth and |
|
| 62:35 | with particular is we have cast in and calcium release. And calc was |
|
| 62:40 | good for sauces unnecessary from your entrance their vast ical releases necessary for vinyl |
|
| 62:47 | in the brain. Niall Ferguson the right of purchase on the salads counseling |
|
| 62:52 | really alive, but council is also on controlled council. More free side |
|
| 62:57 | stalling flooding. Council months of account bound up inside the styles free side |
|
| 63:03 | solid council levels are very tightly Too much calcium can also hearing in |
|
| 63:10 | excite toe toxicity or death initiated by overload of councillors or this regulation from |
|
| 63:16 | Intracellular Council in stores under plasmid, with something that's key to function as |
|
| 63:23 | as a TV production of energy by mark. Andrea and obviously denounces, |
|
| 63:32 | suggested, consume a lot of They eat a lot of sure they |
|
| 63:38 | oxygen. We need pro Dale, need five. So we consume and |
|
| 63:45 | very sensitive to oxygen. Deprivation of up for 2 to 5 minutes in |
|
| 63:52 | brain can mean significant and permanent loss function. Just certain parts of the |
|
| 63:59 | . Uh, so these dives arian energy sources get converted into paralytic acid |
|
| 64:06 | mind Condra, you oxidation process compress it ah dentist triphosphate 80 p, |
|
| 64:15 | is the major challenge a molecule in brain and then the body. 80 |
|
| 64:20 | is also a transmitter in the brain the core off 80 p at |
|
| 64:27 | off the dentist in French Fast Bay a very powerful neurotransmitter in the brain |
|
| 64:34 | the rest of the body. Having dentist in this chapter is distributed pretty |
|
| 64:40 | and structures like the suitable cortex and heart. And so you have formation |
|
| 64:47 | the DB. Remind yourselves that my Drian of these double number and like |
|
| 64:53 | with Chris stay and these are very molecules that you will find located around |
|
| 65:00 | nucleus around by synthetic machinery off the most. But you will also find |
|
| 65:08 | located in some of the fingertips Now fluid mosaic model off the foster |
|
| 65:16 | by layer is something that you should . And keep in mind that the |
|
| 65:20 | supplies remember, in structure that um, uh, Peruvians embedded in |
|
| 65:27 | carbohydrates, cholesterol, some bread and Prodi ins is a double layer is |
|
| 65:35 | fossil livid by lair that consists of Poland Hydra Filic group and non Vogler |
|
| 65:43 | tail. And the fatty acid hydrophobic will be putting pointing inwards. So |
|
| 65:50 | you were just to take the possible is and dump them in water they |
|
| 65:55 | immediately for my seals with the hydrophobic would join together. And the Hydra |
|
| 66:01 | ends would be exposed on the outside that ring as well as the inside |
|
| 66:06 | the ring. So this is basically the cell members are formed. But |
|
| 66:12 | , they're not static. They're very . And I'm gonna, uh, |
|
| 66:18 | , uh, a quick movie that would like Teoh share with you. |
|
| 66:28 | , so this is a you a very basic level movie on the |
|
| 66:34 | membranes that I think is very relevant you. Teoh keep forming an understanding |
|
| 66:41 | the brain and the brain structures. plastic is dynamic. It's fluid. |
|
| 66:46 | is ever changing, So let me sure that the volumes are working |
|
| 68:21 | So when I wanted to point out when this movement happens of these small |
|
| 68:26 | kills throughout throughout, the membrane This is not a slow movement, |
|
| 68:33 | there are protean channels that can move extent of the entire synapse within |
|
| 68:44 | So it's very fast movement and therefore proteins can be placed within the synapses |
|
| 68:51 | visit into an X spy in so can be taken away from these different |
|
| 68:56 | . But you can see that these of hospital it, but by lair |
|
| 69:00 | rearrange itself also and rearrangement off. foster lipid. Byler, which is |
|
| 69:07 | the membrane or inside of the sounds supportive by side of skeletal elements, |
|
| 69:12 | change the shape off you and injured as we're changing the fluidity and rearranging |
|
| 69:20 | membrane and inserting different pro dance inside smell. The fluid mosaic model is |
|
| 69:33 | illustrated by This very rudimentary, simple , I think, is a great |
|
| 69:38 | for us. Our plastic brain um, and, uh, one |
|
| 69:45 | discuss briefly. Today is a Slide is the side of skeletal |
|
| 69:52 | so there are three types of Count around this microfilm, a sneer |
|
| 69:56 | elements of micro two bills the smallest the microfilm amounts and they consist of |
|
| 70:02 | active molecules. And so these acting compelling arise and form longer chains of |
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| 70:09 | and so they can deepen, memorize break up at the 40 chains aren't |
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| 70:14 | acting molecules. The newer filaments are tangles or these filaments that actually wind |
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| 70:20 | around about 10 90 m in And the market tubules are comprised of |
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| 70:26 | two billion molecules that formed this three tube like structure said, referring to |
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| 70:33 | tubules, because they're too like and made from tubular in on the |
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| 70:37 | What you see is you, that kat through an axe on |
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| 70:41 | stands from my island. And if look on the top or the bottom |
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| 70:46 | so where it says mile and you see these lines, these air the |
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| 70:51 | of mile and layers of Meiling that around the axle and inside accent. |
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| 70:57 | can see these micro tubules and my bugles are very important for axonal |
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| 71:05 | There is a slow and fast external , and these micro tubules will be |
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| 71:10 | goods from the area that is again for the repair and by a synthesis |
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| 71:17 | the Saoul around the summon the nucleus the south throughout the distal processes of |
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| 71:24 | cell. So this is the last . When we come back next |
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| 71:28 | we will continue talking about side of elements and how these sign of skeletal |
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| 71:35 | actually get impaired, especially in the of micro tubules in Alzheimer's disease. |
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| 71:42 | , so I will, uh, at the shot. If there is |
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| 71:47 | questions says, we didn't hear Maybe I think it refers to the |
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| 72:04 | , so when I'll do is I'll a, uh, a message about |
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| 72:11 | a link to the movie that you can review yourselves. So if there |
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| 72:16 | no questions that I'm seeing about the , I'm wishing you to have a |
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| 72:21 | week. I'll see you here on . Please visit Kosta on. Familiarize |
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| 72:28 | with cost if you have any and we will have our office hours |
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| 72:32 | Thursday after the class to review the off the week for you to ask |
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| 72:37 | questions and with graduate students. We hold our graduate student additional assignment meeting |
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| 72:45 | week, and you will receive an about that separately. So I'm wishing |
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| 72:49 | a great day and I'll see you on Thursday. Take |
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