| 00:00 | Welcome back to neuroscience Electric, The first lecture. After the |
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| 00:07 | we delve into some of the key events that led to the modern development |
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| 00:14 | the development off modern neuroscience. Once was brain Trumper nations that were |
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| 00:21 | So police recall these and why they performed. We talked about Imho tap |
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| 00:28 | his discovery off the distant effect off nervous system injury that it has into |
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| 00:37 | periphery, as well as creation of triage system in Egypt, where the |
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| 00:45 | is not regarded very highly on not very important organ until you have the |
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| 00:53 | and the healers in ancient Greece. Hippocrates now thinks that brain is the |
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| 01:02 | controlling organ in the body. And the Renaissance Times we really come Thio |
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| 01:11 | more detailed description off the central nervous off the brain anatomy. And Andreas |
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| 01:20 | performs these dissections of the human where he exposes different parts of the |
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| 01:27 | and these massive ventricles that are located the middle here. And so he |
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| 01:34 | a ventricular localization of brain function for view that there is something very special |
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| 01:42 | the fluids, and maybe that's how is a connectivity between these fluids and |
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| 01:48 | rest of the body and the periphery the muscles. And such recognizes the |
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| 01:53 | between gray matter and the wife matter some of the features of the grand |
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| 01:59 | matter that we mentioned last time. then we mentioned Renee. The card |
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| 02:05 | huh, had this interpretation off the Mind and spirit, mind and body |
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| 02:14 | and the connection to the outside world happens through the visual system and the |
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| 02:19 | gland and then controls our motor output our thoughts and interpretations of the outside |
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| 02:27 | . And at the same time, initiated a reflex theory by stating that |
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| 02:31 | are certain things that are reflective, as withdrawing your hand from hard flame |
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| 02:38 | also is to be, um, , I think. Therefore, I |
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| 02:45 | Ito. Some is a very important of the coin, so we need |
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| 02:51 | go. Vanni subsequently showed that the and these wires running in the body |
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| 03:00 | not carrying some sort of a It may have fluid, but the |
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| 03:06 | is electrical communication and the nerves air that can produce electrical potentials and very |
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| 03:15 | changes in electrical potentials and send these potentials from the central nervous system and |
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| 03:22 | the periphery and controlling many different Organs and motor commands off the |
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| 03:28 | The brain, as we discussed, comprised of the major lobes the |
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| 03:32 | parietal, occipital and temporal flanked in dorsal side in the back, by |
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| 03:40 | brainstem extending into the spinal cord all way through lumber to three. There |
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| 03:46 | spreading to sub served the lower extremities the body through instead of the spinal |
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| 03:53 | proper through just ramifications off individual spinal . All of the sensor information from |
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| 04:01 | body below the neck goes into the cord, and it enters that through |
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| 04:07 | dorsal side of the spinal cord. all of the sensory nerve endings illustrated |
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| 04:14 | in red that can innovate the the muscle and the joints communicate the |
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| 04:20 | information. Touch pain, heat. , mechanical practice through these sensory fibers |
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| 04:31 | these peripheral accents through the dorsal root into the dorsal side, where they |
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| 04:38 | into the spinal cord proper and then the spinal cord proper. The contact |
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| 04:45 | neurons and these blue our fibers that coming from the cells that are located |
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| 04:52 | eras that are located in the ventral ventral horn of the spinal cord in |
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| 04:57 | , and information from here. Coming is the motor information, thes blue |
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| 05:04 | or the motor nerve endings that will either cause a contraction or relaxation of |
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| 05:11 | muscles accordingly. So all of the information from neck below comes in through |
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| 05:17 | dorsal root ganglion fibers in the spinal . And reflexive behavior can take place |
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| 05:23 | the level of the spinal cord as , such as reacting very quickly to |
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| 05:28 | order to stimulate without giving it much thought. But apart from the philosophy |
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| 05:35 | anatomy, there was always a need further understand where different capabilities and functions |
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| 05:45 | located in the brain. And so was a discussion whether the whole brain |
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| 05:52 | responsible for all of the functions. , injuring one small piece of the |
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| 05:56 | would detract all of the functions small of those functions. But soon |
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| 06:03 | I think that we realized that there more to it the brain structures and |
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| 06:13 | uh, nuclei that are located in brain and the skull around the |
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| 06:20 | according to the foreign ologists could be . All of these bumps and indentations |
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| 06:27 | so on could be read as representing areas of different specific, innate faculty |
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| 06:32 | function. It could be measured on outside of the skull, so they |
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| 06:38 | wrong to that extent. But their here is that they tried to really |
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| 06:43 | different parts of the brain and assigned , very specific functions locales to these |
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| 06:51 | in the brain. This is the of American Phonological Journal and as we |
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| 06:57 | ful broker than saw that a lot these functions not just in Broca's case |
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| 07:03 | in many cases, how we understand connectivity of the brain or how we |
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| 07:09 | what damage happens to the brain is the injury or the function of certain |
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| 07:14 | of the brain. Following the broker found that damage to Broca's |
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| 07:19 | which is located in the frontal very close to the motor cortex, |
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| 07:23 | will be giving the motor commands for . Damage to the Syria causes expressive |
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| 07:31 | and the difference area Vernick ous area is located in this junction between temporal |
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| 07:37 | and occipital lobes, is responsible for aphasia. so mostly influencing the ability |
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| 07:43 | understand spoken language. The most mild of aphasia, economic or amnesia, |
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| 07:51 | and the most severe form of F . We discusses global aphasia, and |
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| 07:56 | usually due to an extensive, extensive to the language areas of the |
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| 08:01 | Now it's very important to keep in that our brain structures and this is |
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| 08:06 | to be a recurrent theme in this are plastic. There's a lot of |
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| 08:12 | , and there is little of new stem cells that are being generated into |
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| 08:20 | neurons, although the rest and this is also dependent on age. So |
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| 08:26 | you have a damage to the brain very young ages, infant or early |
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| 08:34 | ages, then this significant recovery of and repairing the brain that can |
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| 08:40 | But if that damage happens in older , that plasticity, the ability to |
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| 08:46 | repair itself is not a strong, that plasticity is not just a reflection |
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| 08:54 | these anatomical structural changes, but also lot of times, uh, learning |
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| 09:01 | as we age that, uh, are most way can absorb the |
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| 09:09 | As we're young on, we can the best is your as we're |
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| 09:14 | also in our brain, because of amount of the plasticity that this |
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| 09:18 | which is no longer Azriel Boston, aging brains. And then we talked |
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| 09:25 | the names gauge. We may have him that he was, ah, |
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| 09:32 | that was packing explosives when New England were being built and as he was |
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| 09:40 | the explosives, this rod that was packing rod for the explosives, the |
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| 09:47 | went off on this raw penetrated through bottom of the skull, causing a |
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| 09:51 | significant damage to the frontal lobe And Phineas Gage's is pictured here, |
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| 09:59 | this rock not only survived but was . It was just angry and aggressive |
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| 10:05 | couldn't execute things. And so we and was very bad with memory, |
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| 10:10 | . So we understood that this part the brain, as well as part |
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| 10:13 | the brain called the hippocampus, were . But this is very large. |
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| 10:19 | , damage, even in adult does not always lead to death, |
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| 10:26 | it depends on what region of the is affected to what functions are going |
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| 10:30 | be affected as well. More detailed of regions of the brain came from |
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| 10:38 | with cortical stimulation using animals where the were stimulated. Brain tissue doesn't have |
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| 10:46 | receptors by itself, and different effects that stimulation was observed. You don't |
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| 10:52 | or emotional behavioral function. Charles Darwin a mention and thinking about evolution, |
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| 11:04 | on Lee with external traits but also of behavioral traits. And, |
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| 11:14 | these trades and this understanding off evolving the environment adapting to the environment, |
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| 11:23 | with the environment are echoed throughout the anatomy of different species in the |
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| 11:32 | Monkeys and humans spend a lot of looking at things, and they have |
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| 11:37 | very engaged visual system. And so substantial amount of complexity in the primary |
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| 11:45 | cortex that is located on the pivotal here, as opposed to, for |
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| 11:51 | , rodents that have these massive olfactory . This is a olfactory ball of |
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| 11:59 | , and this is very small, to the rest of the size of |
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| 12:04 | brain or factory evolved from the non primate, and you can see that |
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| 12:10 | a lot of brain area that is to a faction. But even more |
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| 12:19 | , most of the somatic sensations most the sensing of the world that comes |
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| 12:25 | these rodents comes from their whisker And because it's such an organ for |
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| 12:33 | and also sensing the environment with whisker , you have a complex and large |
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| 12:39 | like olfactory bulb as well as a here in the somatic sensory cortex it |
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| 12:45 | represents. Each one of these brown represents is one single whisker on the |
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| 12:54 | pad on that animals one side off snout. Okay. And in non |
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| 13:05 | primates, you don't have whiskers. so you don't have this whisker pat |
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| 13:11 | and the somatic sensory cortex. Because is not how we sense the environment |
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| 13:20 | these maps what you are seeing This is essentially also recurrent theme of |
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| 13:27 | maps, these air anatomical areas in brain that are active and are activated |
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| 13:35 | specific organs in the periphery. In case, each one of these brown |
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| 13:40 | will be active as you activate a whisker on a whisker pattern. This |
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| 13:47 | , these maps air also plastic and mass can adopt Andi neurons can learn |
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| 13:57 | they can learn good things, and can also learn paralysis, which is |
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| 14:01 | so good and we'll talk about At the very end of this |
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| 14:07 | it's until about 19th century microscopes are poor quality optical quality and the first |
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| 14:16 | that are capable of resolving individual cells available in the 18 twenties. And |
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| 14:25 | is when the studies off cell morphology anatomy and your anatomy really intensify. |
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| 14:37 | even at that time in the early century, there is a massive debate |
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| 14:44 | wrong because people take out the brain they look at this, you |
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| 14:48 | kind of a spon just kind ah, soft, you know, |
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| 14:53 | , like Jell O like muscle kind a structure with spinal cord and nerves |
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| 15:00 | everywhere. And they're saying that you what? We think that maybe it's |
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| 15:06 | interconnected. And so there are proponents what is called the Ridiculous theory, |
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| 15:13 | argued that nervous system is a census . It's essentially a network of living |
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| 15:21 | . Having multiplying multiple nuclei. They know how many, maybe hundreds of |
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| 15:29 | of nuclear they thought and sign a continuity. That means that all of |
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| 15:36 | nuclei thousands of nuclear and different parts the central nervous system, brainstem and |
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| 15:42 | cord were all covered by one continuous covered that they were not discreet individual |
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| 15:53 | . The opposing view in the 19th was the neuron doctrine, which held |
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| 15:59 | the nervous system, like all other tissues, is composed of discrete |
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| 16:08 | So one camp argued for this Bond ridiculous theory all continues in another |
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| 16:19 | argued that this whole brain is comprised they didn't know how many, maybe |
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| 16:26 | of thousands is turns out about billions individual discrete units called neurons, each |
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| 16:35 | just one nucleus and each with its cell membrane, its own envelope. |
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| 16:44 | we really couldn't understand that very because if you take the brain and |
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| 16:50 | just make a slice of the brain your place is under the microscope, |
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| 16:55 | translucent. You really can't see neuron you really can't see glia, then |
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| 17:03 | type of cells that are very dominant the brain to so the brain to |
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| 17:15 | the brain to reveal different neurons, connections in the circuits, the structure |
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| 17:23 | these neuronal circuits. You needed to a stain, so the game in |
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| 17:33 | brain is mainly in the stain. rain in Spain is mostly in the |
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| 17:44 | . And so Golgi, chameleon pictured here publishes a method that is |
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| 17:51 | on Silver Re agents that are used photo, bro. Graphic development. |
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| 17:57 | that point, you have the silver agents in these beautiful one of a |
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| 18:02 | photographs that are being developed in dark . It was fantastic. If you |
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| 18:09 | never experienced because we all just have phones these days, what really photograph |
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| 18:18 | how thio how to actually, take a film. Cameras? |
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| 18:29 | you may not remember. They had that loaded up with film before there |
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| 18:34 | a digital card, just like a , like a movie reel of |
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| 18:42 | And you would have a shot, then you would develop that on the |
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| 18:50 | . And there was a whole technique to do this. So we take |
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| 18:54 | of hours to do it. And , it was done with these silver |
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| 18:59 | agents, silver nitrate, free agents communion. Golgi was a neuroscientist. |
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| 19:07 | was interested in the brain. His was Ramani Kahala Ramon. Alcohol is |
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| 19:13 | the most famous neuroscientists in Spain of period ceremony Kahala, use Golgi, |
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| 19:23 | stain. The brain. So they , Let's take the stain is used |
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| 19:28 | photography and apply it on the brains the brain tissues and figure out a |
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| 19:37 | . And indeed, what they did they reveal that Golgi stain stains 123% |
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| 19:43 | all of the neurons. But when does stain that doesn't only reveal its |
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| 19:50 | cell bodies, but also the massive to dendrites and axons would radiate |
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| 19:57 | And the circus that are being formed different parts of the central nervous |
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| 20:04 | This gentleman on the right bottom, , Sir Charles Sherington is responsible than |
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| 20:09 | coining really and explaining, introducing in detail this understanding of the synapse |
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| 20:20 | a very specialized place where two neurons communicate with each other through these very |
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| 20:28 | synaptic connections. So do you. Golgi, Ramona. Alcohol in 1906 |
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| 20:42 | accept noble prize together. But guess ? They arrivals still land? Because |
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| 20:54 | these beautiful drawings and these air drawings Ramani Kahala, including this one chameleon |
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| 21:02 | you who invented the stain, he a proponent of ridiculous theory. He |
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| 21:09 | not believe that these cells are discreet . You still think that they're all |
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| 21:18 | by the same cytoplasmic continuous envelope on since issue, his students from Monica |
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| 21:27 | is a huge proponent of neuron Not only that, but if you |
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| 21:35 | at these drawings, these drawings showing and the showing den droids and light |
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| 21:42 | color and these beautiful, parameter all cells these are topical. Dendrite is |
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| 21:49 | off the apex of parameter all cells basil dendrites coming off the base of |
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| 21:54 | pyramid like shape cells. And these the major excited Torrey cells in the |
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| 22:01 | nervous system, their projection cells. that means that they project their |
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| 22:08 | which is shown here in black. air attacks oh, no projections. |
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| 22:13 | project them long distances, and they adjacent parts of the brain or longer |
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| 22:21 | between the interconnected brain regions. And , Monica Hall predicted that there is |
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| 22:28 | directionality to this communication and how the from the circuits from the south from |
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| 22:34 | dendrites and Selma's you predicted that is that communicated that information out of the |
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| 22:43 | to the other Jason Sauce. He that these connections that are formed onto |
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| 22:50 | cells a plastic, so he argued synaptic plasticity in the early 20th |
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| 22:59 | was very forward. Thinking really was thought leader, sometimes disputed and recognized |
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| 23:07 | later proven right. Take home message that you don't always have to think |
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| 23:15 | same way as your mentor things, , in the research situation, especially |
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| 23:26 | in the research situation where you have to explore, to form a hypothesis |
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| 23:34 | to seek an answer to prove or that hypothesis. It's more difficult to |
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| 23:41 | that in clinical applications. But even so, a lot of the technological |
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| 23:46 | clinical innovations came from people inventing new sins a lot of times, testing |
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| 23:56 | compounds, new ways off, injecting on themselves, Um, throughout the |
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| 24:08 | action. So we know all of , but we don't know what's |
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| 24:14 | We know there's electricity, but we know that neurons generate action for controls |
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| 24:20 | all of this forward thinking by Twitter . And we also need to know |
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| 24:29 | than just 1 to 3% of all the cells that get revealed with the |
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| 24:35 | stain and all of the processes. about the rest of the central nervous |
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| 24:40 | ? What about the rest of the . And so there's another stain. |
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| 24:44 | called missile stain that was invented by missile. The missile stain is this |
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| 24:52 | stain, which allows if you submerge of the brain or the brain entered |
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| 24:58 | . All of the cells, all the neurons will stain. And so |
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| 25:04 | is showing you, for example, bands or layers. This is a |
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| 25:10 | layer structure over here called the lateral Hewlett nucleus of the thalamus. And |
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| 25:18 | gonna learn about this. This is structure in this very dark band. |
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| 25:24 | a lower resolution. This low dark indicates very high density of the |
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| 25:31 | and so with missile stain allows. stain allows you to stain the entire |
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| 25:38 | structure, brain slice of interest and an aerial view. Understanding off the |
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| 25:46 | , the packing density, the the orientation of the south, the |
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| 25:53 | of the cells on this macro But it does not reveal the process |
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| 26:00 | very well. It stains all of cells, neurons and glia, but |
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| 26:05 | does not reveal the processes and is poor and seeing the connectivity between any |
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| 26:11 | . But it's really good at describing overall structure and architectures off the cellular |
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| 26:18 | , Um, how they stack up different parts of the brain. And |
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| 26:24 | Dr Convenient Broad hman uses missile stain , and this is also happening at |
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| 26:34 | beginning of the 20th century. really, we see massive technological advancement |
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| 26:40 | staining and understanding the structure and function the brain, non functional methods, |
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| 26:47 | the static staining methods and also looking , uh, injuries of the |
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| 26:52 | And from the functional perspective, we're the brain to see what those different |
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| 26:58 | that stain differently that have different side architecture are responsible for so sides. |
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| 27:04 | architectures Saturday Chicken Tectonic Methods is a functional areas that are determined by observing |
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| 27:14 | in the structure, orientation and architecture different cells across the brain. So |
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| 27:25 | opinion broad Hman comes up with classifications many different parts of the brain, |
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| 27:31 | these parts of the brain, like 17 are still known and use this |
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| 27:38 | . 17 is primary visual cortex. one still can refer to area 17 |
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| 27:45 | lot of times. So since these and since missile stain than being a |
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| 27:52 | more bond stains and a lot more methods of measuring connectivity and functionality of |
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| 27:57 | different regions. And there's many subdivisions Area 17, but nonetheless on a |
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| 28:05 | scale per billion. Broad moon really the major task of delineating these different |
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| 28:11 | of the brain, then having different of architectural and obviously different functions. |
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| 28:25 | standard light microscope. Let's talk about a little bit. Standard light microscope |
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| 28:31 | a resolution off 0.1 micro meter. sell soma or neuro no cell bodies |
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| 28:41 | 10 micro meters, so you can . But it only get about 10 |
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| 28:49 | of one line across space between neurons the synapses 20 nanometers. So you |
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| 28:56 | very, uh, potent microscopes, resolution, con focal resolution or even |
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| 29:06 | electron microscope that has a resolution of nanometers and allows you to visualize the |
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| 29:14 | of the 2019 m across this space . What you're looking at here PSD |
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| 29:21 | for posson OPIC density in this protruding that you're looking at is called dendritic |
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| 29:28 | . This is an electron microscope reconstruction all of these different than really experience |
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| 29:35 | a PSD s Boston optic and really in different shapes, and they're juxtaposed |
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| 29:43 | from pre synaptic tax Iran's and these circles that are vesicles that will continue |
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| 29:52 | transmitters. And although it looks like pre synoptic red vesicles and the membrane |
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| 30:01 | touching the postion optic densities of these spines, there's actually 20 nanometer distance |
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| 30:09 | between, and we can visualize it electron microscope. These dendritic spines are |
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| 30:17 | most dynamic units in the central nervous of the cerebral cortex, so they |
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| 30:25 | in different shapes and sizes, and now is you're listening to this course |
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| 30:33 | learning new information, and, as learning new information, what your brain |
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| 30:39 | what your neurons air doing. They're strengthening communication in certain synapses in your |
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| 30:47 | by releasing neurotransmitters and activated dendritic spines activating the dem rides and all of |
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| 30:53 | neurons. If you repeat the same over and over, you are likely |
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| 31:00 | reactivate the same dendritic spines and and so must and dem rights. |
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| 31:07 | so the same patterns and replay of same patterns will allow you to strengthen |
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| 31:12 | synopsis and grow new synapses. Is learning mawr information and grow new dendritic |
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| 31:20 | ? So it's not only just physiological in the strength of communication between existing |
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| 31:26 | is you learn new things, but also the structural changes the synapse may |
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| 31:32 | larger. They made the disdain May protrude another additional than Riddick spine |
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| 31:40 | pay more attention to an active At the same time, forgetting or |
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| 31:47 | enough repetition will weaken the synopsis, forgetting is just a normal process off |
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| 31:55 | being and survival. But one way which we forget things is we weaken |
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| 32:01 | synopsis, and eventually you can eliminate dendritic spines. These don't really experience |
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| 32:07 | very important for learning and memory, you can view them as the most |
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| 32:12 | points of intersections between neurons. Present Pasta Matic Marin's that can reshape the |
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| 32:20 | , react to the activity off the and reshape the connectivity and reshape the |
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| 32:28 | of the South, to which they're in modern election. My in modern |
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| 32:38 | in modern electron microscopy as well. this is just a advanced like microscope |
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| 32:47 | has an infrared camera attached to and it has a set of die |
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| 32:52 | mirrors, which makes a differential infrared microscopy through this camera, not through |
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| 33:01 | eyepieces. But what we can do the cameras like this is that we |
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| 33:06 | longer need to stain neurons. We longer need to use a stain using |
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| 33:13 | differential. Infrared contrast microscopy we can reveal. The anatomy is beautiful structures |
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| 33:21 | different neurons. We can play slices the brain and surround the slices with |
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| 33:28 | environment of cerebrospinal fluid and oxygen that them alive for 10 to 12 |
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| 33:37 | And we can direct electrodes underneath these these air glass electrodes that we can |
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| 33:46 | into individual south, thereby pick complected . Electrical activity. This is a |
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| 33:52 | electro picking up electrical activity from different that are placed underneath the microscope and |
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| 34:01 | air very sensitive pieces of equipment. micro manipulators are very sensitive microscopes, |
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| 34:10 | lenses and so on. So this up is like a Ferrari, |
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| 34:18 | one. Students start working or used work more so in the past with |
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| 34:24 | set up, I always used to to them So you do in a |
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| 34:30 | before If they've used a microscope, like, Yeah, sure, you |
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| 34:35 | , electrophysiology and how it works. , yeah, but you know I've |
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| 34:39 | a car before, says Okay, now I'm giving you the keys to |
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| 34:44 | Ferrari and then everybody kind of a is just like Okay, now we |
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| 34:50 | that this is this is a different of machine is very sensitive. It's |
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| 34:54 | expensive. It takes a long time calibrate it, to build it, |
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| 35:00 | To get an experimental stage of reporting a slides, you need about 2 |
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| 35:04 | 3 hours of preparation, including surgery that day, followed by about 6 |
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| 35:11 | 10 hours off recording. We did . It's called the Grind. This |
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| 35:18 | what gets you really involved in in techniques, technology. How thio combined |
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| 35:30 | with technology, how Thio advanced technology interpret the biology better and so on |
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| 35:39 | so forth. So really practical applications neuroscience of what we're going to be |
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| 35:45 | . A lot of these actually recordings action potentials, recordings from the south |
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| 35:54 | and things like that can be accomplished setups like this in the current you |
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| 36:02 | we understand now and what we're capable doing is we're capable off understanding activity |
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| 36:10 | the level of single synapse on the of single dendritic spine, single ciao |
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| 36:19 | of cells networks and then our brain , ah Hall. So there are |
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| 36:28 | imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography pet pet scans, pet scan images |
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| 36:38 | allow us to visualize these what I brain maps. So when you're looking |
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| 36:45 | the words, you're engaging your primary cortex and the occipital lobe in the |
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| 36:49 | of the brain. If you close eyes and you're listening to the words |
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| 36:55 | your brain shifts the activity and different of the brain gets activated when you're |
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| 37:02 | words and this is mostly listening And this is mostly the temporal |
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| 37:09 | where the auditory cortex says, if speaking words, look the area that |
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| 37:15 | very close to broke US area right activated. Expression Motor cortex is here |
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| 37:23 | broke us areas year. So when speaking words, this is the brain |
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| 37:27 | for speaking words and for thinking Now you can see that this brain |
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| 37:34 | is very different. Different parts of brain are activated that were not activated |
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| 37:41 | or sometimes overlapping regions, air activated a different way that were activated |
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| 37:48 | When you're thinking of words so we image these brain maps on the level |
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| 37:54 | the circuits as well as non invasively the level of the whole brains |
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| 38:05 | uh, very common question that I from students as so Does this mean |
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| 38:13 | can only use 10% of our And because this shows about 10% the |
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| 38:21 | about 10%. I don't know this is about 30% so you know you |
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| 38:26 | use 100% of your brain. You don't want to use 100% of the |
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| 38:30 | , because that's usually called a generalized plastic seizure. But this mythology, |
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| 38:40 | urban myth, I only use 10% the brain. You don't want to |
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| 38:45 | 7% of the brain you can. in reality, we use vast regions |
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| 38:53 | the brain and different parts of the , different regions of the brain, |
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| 38:57 | activated during different tasks in different Right? So once again, it |
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| 39:06 | depends. How complex is the task you're performing? And that is also |
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| 39:13 | a representation. How complex the task . Motor task. Come on. |
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| 39:18 | functioning with three things phone, You computer. I'm doing pedicure, you |
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| 39:25 | , massage and that the leg or , you know, like, what's |
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| 39:28 | on here? And it's like, , well, as you can |
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| 39:31 | yeah, maybe motor functions. That's cortex still actually thinking, meditating, |
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| 39:39 | on on thought Processing problem solving often very large areas of the brain, |
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| 39:46 | certain parts of the brain are processing sensor information, such as looking at |
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| 39:54 | . But there's a lot of areas the brain that are dedicated to putting |
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| 40:00 | senses together into one complete understanding off environment the point of view, behavior |
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| 40:10 | emotions that all surround us all at . It's good, so we think |
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| 40:18 | each function is observed by more than neural pathway, and we know that |
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| 40:23 | one neural pathways damaged, others may , uh, and believe it or |
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| 40:30 | , emotions air, also localized. can do temporal lobe or micro stimulation |
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| 40:39 | certain parts of the brain and evoke emotions or people that suffer from a |
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| 40:46 | temporal lobe. Epilepsy, your focal . In general, that means it |
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| 40:50 | a defined focus where it's starting. , uh, there are emotional outbursts |
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| 41:00 | present themselves a seizures, not just , Aziz. 1 may imagine about |
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| 41:06 | seizures. These maps. You these maps can be changed. These |
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| 41:11 | are sensitive to really environment versus virtual environment. So you can see the |
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| 41:17 | in these maps. The stronger the , the mawr activation is present |
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| 41:24 | Let me check the chap real I'll come back to these questions |
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| 41:39 | uh, imaging studies reveal that different called elementary operations are both cereal on |
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| 41:52 | . So we process information in Increasingly hierarchically, more complex information. |
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| 41:58 | on. Lee sees blotches of light . Also, primary visual cortex already |
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| 42:04 | a primal sketch, but it doesn't much of the things like depth, |
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| 42:09 | and things like that until the later air activated and then in parallel, |
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| 42:14 | have multiple pathways processing similar information or same. So we have in Siris |
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| 42:21 | in parallel, just like your parallel in your computer, you're on 3 |
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| 42:27 | 4 parallel processors so that you don't up your computer. And also, |
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| 42:34 | one of them is broken, you still or is slacking, that |
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| 42:38 | can pick up on still, not account for complete full loss of |
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| 42:46 | . Even the simplest mental activity requires of processes and multiple areas of the |
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| 42:52 | . Like I said, you're thinking wars. You think, though, |
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| 42:54 | simple task of not doing much but at how many different regions of the |
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| 42:59 | are coordinated, and that's very seamless us. We don't even think about |
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| 43:02 | . You know, they were uh, multiple naps, areas of |
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| 43:08 | brain and how they're communicating with each . So a lot of you may |
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| 43:14 | thinking about careers and marathons. if you're not thinking about them just |
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| 43:24 | , wait until we get through this . And in any case, I |
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| 43:31 | it's important to think about applications of you studying. Do what you could |
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| 43:37 | professionally following your studies and what are different disciplines that are related to the |
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| 43:44 | of study. So for neuroscience, have neurologists or disease of the nervous |
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| 43:50 | . So if you have Apple, see you go see a neurologist, |
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| 43:55 | , you have Parkinson's disease. You a neurologist, psychiatrist, mood and |
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| 44:03 | disorders. So you have depression, , mood or dual personality disorder and |
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| 44:13 | a psychiatrist. It's ah M D , Sergeant, you don't want to |
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| 44:23 | , but sometimes you dio it helps the sense off neurosurgery and is responsible |
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| 44:31 | surgery of the brain and spinal So even like glioblastoma brain cancers, |
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| 44:38 | like that. Epilepsy. Many other surgeries Noura pathologists, tissue studies to |
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| 44:51 | changes and tissue. So these cells these cells missing are the staining for |
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| 44:59 | factor that is not present in normal . And your pathologist can be either |
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| 45:06 | D or Ph. D. To a neuropathologist, you have to understand |
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| 45:13 | your anatomy of the brain extremely And it doesn't mean that you have |
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| 45:21 | go to medical school. Actually, do that so you can get a |
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| 45:24 | be a killer. You're about be great neuropathologist. Sounded like from a |
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| 45:32 | psycho. Be a killer neuropathologist. a cool, really, really advanced |
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| 45:38 | and gain yourself a position of the to run the either the research or |
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| 45:44 | the clinical diagnosis labs for neuropathology. I have some colleagues and with PhDs |
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| 45:51 | running very large departments at the uh, from experimental neuroscience perspective, |
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| 46:02 | air clinical medical specialists of the nervous from experimental neuroscience perspective by training I'm |
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| 46:11 | . Geologists of classical neuroscientists Raila A of recordings from the South. You're |
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| 46:19 | pharmacologist, very much interested in from manipulation to receptors, neurotransmitters, |
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| 46:26 | So signaling that actually fascinates me that what drew me to neuroscience apart also |
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| 46:33 | personal experiences with migraines, which always me to want to understand mawr What's |
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| 46:39 | in the brain. You're anonymous, lot of work and describing cells and |
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| 46:46 | and connectivity and drawing a lot of cells still using some of the similar |
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| 46:51 | techniques, like Golgi. Stain on the grind, uh, Delvin significantly |
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| 47:00 | computational neuroscience and molecular neuroscience. But can see you can approach it from |
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| 47:05 | physicist Perspective. Biological psychology, Neuropathology In your chemistry, developmental biology |
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| 47:14 | , there's many different experimental. There scientists, branches, neuroscience branches. |
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| 47:20 | , as a neurophysiologist, you know some definitions here. You measure electrical |
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| 47:25 | of the nervous system of the Also don't think that as a nervous |
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| 47:30 | , you know, only time music spend forever is in the lab. |
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| 47:35 | of my graduate school mentors from Louisiana University in New Orleans, where I |
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| 47:45 | my PhD Um, he was on Graduate PhD committee and neurophysiologist very advanced |
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| 47:55 | physiologists. And he worked in the with neurosurgeons, actually putting his hands |
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| 48:02 | putting electrodes into human brains under the in the operating room under the supervision |
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| 48:09 | the neurosurgeon. And those neurophysiology applications often to delineate very important parts of |
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| 48:17 | brain before neurosurgeon proceeds and re sects out to different parts of the brain |
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| 48:27 | neurosurgery again, you may be respecting , and you want to make sure |
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| 48:31 | the regions that you are affecting are concerned with major functions in the brains |
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| 48:37 | neurophysiologist will help you guide the electrodes place electors and determine the more precise |
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| 48:45 | that hopefully, when neurosurgeon performs a results and no or least loss of |
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| 48:53 | , it's possible multiple levels of analysis neuroscience, molecular molecule level cellular |
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| 49:02 | circuit level systems and visual system some just neuro endocrine system under cannabinoid |
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| 49:09 | behavioral levels. Cognitive neuroscience is which borderlines with psychology and borderlines with |
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| 49:19 | , actually, and all of these are very important and there is no |
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| 49:28 | pathway. There's multiple pathways. The most important thing for anybody in their |
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| 49:35 | and and thinking about the future. road is forward. It's not |
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| 49:44 | It can be very windy. And are so many examples in real life |
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| 49:51 | very successful scientists and medical doctors and and lawyers who's road is windy. |
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| 50:02 | don't ace the test the first time vice president, Kamala Harris, didn't |
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| 50:09 | her bar the first time, but passed its second time attorney general, |
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| 50:18 | , vice president. So there's different . There's we'll talk about examples off |
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| 50:28 | and science that led from M. being dissatisfied with India going into the |
|
| 50:35 | , citing toe work as a PhD a scientist, right, There's |
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| 50:42 | D. S that create businesses. . Well, an entrepreneur. So |
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| 50:48 | of this is really interesting because there fundamental sciences, and it's important for |
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| 50:54 | of you to know these fundamental science to understand a lot of things to |
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| 50:59 | absorbed and memorize a lot of but not lose sight of the |
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| 51:04 | not lose side of hope, and think on the straight and narrow |
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| 51:10 | but rather forward path that could be . E. Who's setbacks But you |
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| 51:18 | have to pursue what you want to and the best things to pursue our |
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| 51:27 | in questions that people cannot solve and will help humanity. And, |
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| 51:38 | this is accomplished in multiple different levels humanitarian science is all the way. |
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| 51:46 | Fintech. Okay, so you can some of these descriptions here, and |
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| 51:57 | can think about how neuroscience also applies many different other disciplines such as neural |
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| 52:07 | , biomedical engineering. Sounds familiar. , pharmaceutical sciences, prosthetics, linguistics |
|
| 52:18 | , physical therapy, occupational therapy, hearing, audiology, dentistry, veterinary |
|
| 52:27 | . It's actually very, very So, uh, don't be down |
|
| 52:32 | now because of the co vid. gonna come back and we're gonna normalize |
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| 52:40 | societies. We're gonna normalize the the back to what it waas the economy |
|
| 52:48 | the jobs will be opening up. will be many different needs for you |
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| 52:54 | to invent new things and solutions, what we're facing right now, |
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| 53:04 | |
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