© Distribution of this video is restricted by its owner
Transcript ×
Auto highlight
Font-size
00:01 Alright, I guess we'll get Um If you don't know, I

00:05 watched the clock to see when it exactly 9:00. So um Today,

00:09 we're gonna do, we're gonna talk the cell and we're gonna walk through

00:12 the different pieces, parts of the . This is akin to us opening

00:16 the hood of a car, looking all the parts of the engine and

00:19 this is what this is what this called, and this is what it

00:21 , this is what this is and this is what does we do

00:24 over and over again. If you like cars, look at the inside

00:26 a computer, the same sort of . Alright. The easiest way to

00:30 the parts of the cell is to a picture of the cell, not

00:33 you see here, which is pretty artistic. You can draw like I

00:37 , which is a circle that looks another circle on the inside. And

00:40 I start scribbling little things in there all you gotta do is just label

00:44 and say this is what it is this is what it does, you

00:47 that, you put it all on page and you can basically have everything

00:50 need to know about the cell. . You guys do this in biology

00:54 when you're in 10th grade, you where they made you look through a

00:58 and drew a picture they gave you picture of a cell. You looked

01:00 a cell and you're like, I see any of the things that are

01:02 to be in this picture, but gonna pretend to draw that anyway.

01:06 kind of what we're doing. All . The reason you couldn't see the

01:09 is because you don't have a strong microscope and they also probably had just

01:13 single stain. So you couldn't see the different parts to it.

01:16 But every cell that we're gonna look in the body has all these parts

01:20 it. And how they use these allow the cells to do the things

01:24 they do. And as we've or kind of hinted at is there

01:28 different cells in the body that look and act differently and do unique

01:32 But each of these things that they allowed them to do those unique

01:36 So, these are kind of the things that all cells have. All

01:40 now, we can break it down say that all cells have three basic

01:43 . It has a plasma membrane, the boundary, or the outside the

01:47 , that makes up the cell Now, it's not called a cell

01:51 . Plants have cell walls. Mammalian do not have cell walls.

01:55 you can think of it as a , that thing that contains the stuff

01:58 the inside of cell versus the stuff the outside of the cell. The

02:02 on the inside of the cell is a cytoplasm. Alright, So that

02:05 the water and all the stuff that's the water that goes with it.

02:09 includes as well the organelles which we'll about in just a moment.

02:14 So you can just think about It's everything else. And then inside

02:19 we have this larger structure that sits the middle or kind of off to

02:22 side a little bit. It's a structure called the nucleus. The nucleus

02:26 the control center. This is where D. N. A. Of

02:29 cell is located, with one little of the mitochondria. So all the

02:34 for that cell and what it needs do are contained within the nucleus.

02:39 you have kind of the outside the , you have that that liquid fluid

02:45 on the inside with all their little organelles and inclusions and other things which

02:49 going to go through and we have nucleus. And so what we're gonna

02:52 is we're just gonna kind of walk the parts. Truthfully, we're gonna

02:56 with the nucleus and we're gonna go the side of plaza and deal with

02:58 the organelles. And then we're gonna back to the plasma membrane. Um

03:03 you ever are able, if you a biology major, um you would

03:07 a class called cell biology where you into great detail about what these things

03:13 . We could spend three full lectures on the plasma membrane and still not

03:18 everything. Alright, because there's some interesting stuff going on here. But

03:23 level course freshman level stuff. So let's start off with our good

03:29 nucleus. Let's start off with our old. There we go. Our

03:34 . Oh, that's not our nucleus . Guess we're starting with the

03:40 Alright, so the cytoplasm is our cartoon here is all this yellow stuff

03:46 all the stuff that's on the inside to the nucleus. So if the

03:50 is this light ladies of that the lavender, help me lilac.

03:57 you. Okay, see guys know colors, Right? Yeah,

04:03 Yes, Roy G. Biv you know about 40 colors by

04:06 We can all identify about 1.4 million up to 14 million colors but nomenclature

04:14 . So Alright, lilac that we . So the lilac here is the

04:19 but this darker, purplish color. magenta. Okay, see I thought

04:26 was more of in the red But all right. Anyway, that

04:31 looking thing is part of the organelles are found in the cytoplasm.

04:36 so what you can see in this that there is stuff there and that

04:40 is the side is all which is confused with the cytoplasm side is all

04:46 the water plus the micro molecules that find in that water. So it's

04:52 of gooey, It's viscous. And what we say is there's gonna

04:56 some free proteins in there. There'll sugars, there's lots of solute solute

05:01 the general term of things that are in water. Alright. So it

05:05 be salt as well. And so kind of what's sitting. That's what

05:09 yellowish color is supposed to represent. all the stuff that's dissolved in the

05:15 and we call it side is all right. So, if you were

05:18 poke a sell that stuff would be stuff that oozed out the organelles.

05:23 these structures that you see here kind labeled, that serve as the metabolic

05:30 for the cell. They are the where unique chemical reactions are taking

05:35 All right. So in other it's like that description we gave

05:39 you know, an apartment or something we have a kitchen and a bathroom

05:42 a bedroom and a living room. are certain things you do in those

05:46 . That's what those organelles are. areas set apart for unique types of

05:51 . Chemical reactions where unique type of that's taking place in the cell.

05:57 lastly, and not every cell has but many cells do. They're called

06:03 and they would be floating around in side is all But they're not organelles

06:07 they're not small enough to be Their much larger structures. So,

06:11 see things like glycogen crystals or glycogen . You'll see lipid droplets. If

06:18 look at a flower, you know flowers are pretty, just nod your

06:21 . So, of course you have are pretty right. They have unique

06:25 . Those colors are dependent upon these called pigment vacuum als So, they're

06:30 compartments that have a whole bunch of jammed into them that give that sell

06:34 unique color. All right. these are different things. There's even

06:38 that some cells will hold up and actually hold onto crystals inside there.

06:44 uh cytoplasm not all cells will have , but for example, your muscles

06:49 have glycogen stored up and way inside cells. So, that has a

06:55 resource to grab energy from. Just an example. Now, the organelles

07:03 into two categories. We have the bound organelles. And then some

07:08 incorrectly called the other type, the membrane bound. They're not called that

07:13 called biomolecular complexes. These are the that lack membranes. So, if

07:17 ever come across a thing where it about the non membrane bound organelles,

07:21 know that the author doesn't know what talking about and has used poor judgment

07:27 how they are offering their textbook. right. And why do I say

07:31 ? Because there are a lot of that have this. Alright,

07:35 membrane bounds are very, very They have the same material.

07:38 we're gonna talk about the plasma membrane just a moment. They are made

07:42 or they have a boundary that excludes on the side is all from what's

07:46 the inside that organ L. And use that same material, that membrane

07:52 which are fossil lipids to separate them inside from the outside. All

07:58 This compartmentalization just like we're describing allows cell or that that compartment to do

08:05 things. Alright, so the examples these the nucleus is considered an organ

08:11 . We talk about it separately because so unique in the fact that it's

08:15 primarily where the hereditary material is. it is an organ L technically speaking

08:20 it is a membrane bound but we like the end of plasma articulate,

08:24 Golgi the mitochondria, the paroxysms Um These are examples of these membrane

08:30 organized and we'll walk through each of and what they do through the course

08:34 the class. The other group are biomolecular complexes and what we have here

08:40 basically proteins and other other biomolecules that come together to create this larger

08:48 All right. So, they kind built something and then that big thing

08:51 they've built has some sort of unique function that allows the cell to do

08:56 they do. The three that we're focus on are gonna be the side

08:59 skeleton. The ribosomes in the Now, we've already told you biologists

09:03 things for what they do it for they look like. So, when

09:05 see the word side of skeleton, do you imagine the side of skeleton

09:10 for the cell structure? There you . See it serves kind of like

09:14 skeleton. So, already if you of look at these things are going

09:18 , okay, if I can visualize a skeleton decided body does, I

09:21 kind of visualize what a side of does right now. These other things

09:25 have good names for anything. But see what we do at what they

09:29 as we go along. All So this big giant eye of sauron

09:34 our nucleus. Alright. Um It considered the control center of the

09:40 So I'm gonna use a lot of here. Alright. It is like

09:44 brain of the cell. It is a brain but it is like a

09:49 . Alright. So all the information cell needs in order to be

09:53 In other words, all the genes are there are gonna be found inside

09:59 nucleus. The one exception to this is D. N. A.

10:03 found in the mitochondria. When we to the mitochondria, I'll talk about

10:06 specifically. But as far as you're you can just say nucleus has

10:10 And that's good enough. And everyone nod their heads and agree with you

10:14 if they heard that statement. All , this is where the D.

10:17 . A. Is there. So the cells divide that's where DNA replication

10:21 place. So one of the things cells do is when they replicate they

10:24 to copy all that D. A. And so that's where that

10:27 place. All right. There are primary structures that are accorded the

10:33 This is the nuclear list right That's one part. You see the

10:37 part here. It's like the plasma of the cell. It's the nuclear

10:41 . All right. And lastly, these darker colors in here is just

10:46 is not artistic choice. And lighter in here is not artistic choice.

10:50 are drawn there on purpose. Those things together are chroma tin. All

10:56 . So these three things are what find in nuclear in the nuclear.

11:00 so this whole thing is a This is kind of coming in different

11:05 . And what they're doing is they're , all right, let's take a

11:08 through it and see what a nucleus of looks like. All right.

11:11 so what you can see here is the membrane is actually two layers.

11:16 not just a bi layer. we're gonna talk about by layers

11:19 It's one by layer plus another by . And this other by layer.

11:24 outer by layer is continuous with the organ l called the endo plasma

11:29 Um Alright, so we have an membrane and we have an outer membrane

11:34 membrane on the inside surface. Has crisscross the latticework. It's all a

11:40 of protein the purpose of which is organize the DNA inside the cell or

11:46 the nucleus. So the cell knows to find the genes it's looking for

11:51 . I'll be the first one to you here that biologists don't know

11:55 Alright. And when I say I mean that for real we probably

11:59 about this much of all the things the world that we need to know

12:03 how things work. All right. one of the things we don't know

12:06 how do cells organize their D. . A. We know that they

12:10 things to organize it. But how it know of the 33,000 genes where

12:14 and every one of those 33,000 genes located and when to turn them on

12:18 when to turn them off. We're . We're trying to figure that stuff

12:23 . But this is one of the that they use is like okay if

12:27 organize the D. N. In such a way I can know

12:30 certain genes are and I can turn genes on and off as I need

12:33 . Kind of cool. All right , what we're going to see a

12:37 bit later is how we go about proteins. This is going to be

12:41 of the second half of the And remember what we talked about.

12:44 very a very small manner yesterday as said, look we have D.

12:50 . A. D. N. . Is used to make copies of

12:53 in the small transcripts called RNA. RNA is in red and to be

12:57 into protein. And if you remember picture vaguely, we had a picture

13:01 a nucleus with the DNA and the . And the RNA was shown to

13:04 outside of the nucleus and out into cytoplasm And there that's where the protein

13:09 made. So how does it get ? Well there's these things called nuclear

13:16 and these nuclear pores serve as the or the gateways to to allow what

13:22 in and what goes out of the . So things can't just wander into

13:26 nucleus just because it feels like it things can't leave the nucleus just because

13:30 like it feels like it. There other proteins that sit there and go

13:33 need to check your I. Please. And I mean that literally

13:37 every cell has some sort of marker determines where it's supposed to go

13:44 And so molecules like RNA can leave other molecules for example, transcription factors

13:52 move in because there's a way to so. And because there's proteins that

13:56 and see what's allowed to come in out so far. You with

14:03 Yeah. In yeah that's the lamb a I mean again this is artistic

14:10 you know it could be it's not best artist and this blue stuff over

14:15 . That's the chroma tim that's the N. A plus stuff which we're

14:19 to get to in just sec. right. And so what they're trying

14:22 show you like oh look see it's on top of the laminate. All

14:27 now the little eyeball looking thing inside our entire large nucleus is called the

14:33 . This right here is an electron showing that. And you can see

14:37 there would be the plasma membrane a green stuff over here on the side

14:40 ectoplasmic articulate. And what you can this darker and the lighter stuff.

14:45 are two different types of chroma It's not like empty space. There

14:49 chroma tin that's tight and there's chroma that's loose. But you can see

14:54 inside we have this round structure. called the nucleus. This is where

14:59 specific type of RNA is made called . RNA zonal RNA is important for

15:06 process of making proteins. And when get to that we'll talk about ribosomes

15:11 and we'll talk about ribosomes right That's not all that's taking place inside

15:16 nucleus. Again we don't completely understand going on in there but there's some

15:21 processes that appear to be regulated inside structure inside this larger structure. So

15:28 not just a unique feature. Things made for purposes just because we don't

15:34 what they are. Doesn't mean that not purposeful if that makes sense.

15:43 start with the nucleus to membranes. inner membrane and the outer membrane.

15:47 outer membrane continues and forms our next . L. Alright this outer membrane

15:54 inter membrane are made of phosphor Its outer membrane forms a group of

15:59 and sister knee. That's what these terms. R is basically these spaces

16:04 form the endo plasvic reticulated. There two different types of ectoplasmic articular.

16:10 rough into plasma, articulate and smooth a plasma critical. Um Again named

16:14 when we looked into a microscope we and saw, oh look one has

16:18 lot of bumps on it and the one doesn't. And you could see

16:22 in a microscope. All right. why does this one have bumps?

16:28 why does this one not? the rough ectoplasmic particular. Um It

16:34 determined that those bumps are these things ribosomes. This is an example of

16:38 here, ribosomes play an important role making proteins with this little picture right

16:44 represents which will come back to. , this represents an RNA transcript.

16:50 the ribosomes are the things reading the so that we can begin making a

16:57 . And that's what this is trying represent. Is showing you how you're

17:00 the protein and rough into plasma Um The ribosomes are attached to the

17:07 . Like what you're seeing here, the surface of the indo plasma in

17:10 . Um And it's making its protein inserting that protein either into the

17:15 So it stays in the membrane or the cistern. E the space inside

17:23 into plasma articulate. And now you a protein trapped inside a structure these

17:32 then go on to be modified in next organ. L and then these

17:37 that are trapped inside are then the that are gonna be either released by

17:42 cell or are going to be stored other organelles down the line. All

17:49 , so, the enterprise in particular is responsible for producing proteins that the

17:57 uses internally inside vesicles or organelles or secrete ng out into the external environment

18:05 the cell or inserting into the surface the cell. The smooth Indo plasma

18:13 um has no um uh no It has different functionality primarily. Its

18:23 is to make lipids and steroids. , again, it primarily deals with

18:27 . So this one is dealing with . This one's dealing with fats.

18:31 can play a role in detoxifying, basically can modify uh molecules that are

18:38 are harmful to the cell. So kind of acts like the liver of

18:41 cell. Alright, again, I'm analogies here. It can serve as

18:49 place where I break down larger molecules glycogen and we're gonna see like in

18:54 for example can serve as a place store up calcium which is important for

19:00 because they need the calcium to actually contractions. So it has multiple

19:06 And depending on which cell you're looking , it does different things. But

19:10 key thing is it doesn't make proteins we see in the rough enter plasma

19:17 very, very different appearance. nucleus contains Yes, ma'am.

19:31 Yes. Yes. So, so idea here is what we're gonna see

19:39 we go forward and we're gonna come to this. I don't know why

19:42 have the slide so far. And I always review the slides before I

19:46 I come in and we have this called the indo membrane system and and

19:51 probably not introducing it now because I to kind of go through the whole

19:53 and then go back and say, , all those things we just learned

19:56 this is this. And so, we're really seeing is that the membrane

19:59 actually being created between the plasma, the rough er and that outer membrane

20:05 the nucleus there because they're continuous. you're doing is you're making that membrane

20:10 the next rough er then you're gonna portions of the rough er split

20:15 And what they're gonna do is they're those proteins that you just made Plus

20:19 membrane that you've just torn off and go to the next structure single G

20:26 right. And that's what they're You see that little circle right there

20:28 came from the rough er and what doing is it's going and it's joining

20:32 with this next organ al which is up of the same membrane.

20:36 So is it making membrane yes and membrane will then go through this process

20:41 then you pinch it off and then goes off someplace else. So you

20:44 I'm gonna come back to it but a good I you're like wait a

20:48 . Um I see you wrote something here and like I said these are

20:51 to remind me of what to talk and I forgot you can do that

20:59 to go for Goldie. Okay, the Golgi apparatus is kind of like

21:05 post office. Alright, so if rough and applies in particular is making

21:10 , that protein is either gonna be on the surface, It's gonna be

21:14 secreted out into the external environment or on the surface. Or it could

21:18 stuck inside these vesicles and sent to organelles. Then you need to know

21:22 that needs to go. And so happens is we get those vesicles pinched

21:28 so they'll pinch off of this rough and then they'll start moving towards the

21:33 and then they'll merge with this larger . And even though this pancake looking

21:38 looks very disorganized, apparently there are machinery inside the gold, he knows

21:44 to read each of those proteins and where it needs to go. It's

21:48 reading zip codes on an envelope and it begins sorting the proteins and it

21:53 proteins and says, oh your protein to go here. You're a protein

21:56 needs to go there and it sends things and stores them and packages them

22:00 into different vesicles. And then those then pinch off and then travel to

22:05 they need to go. So, a sorting machine. We refer to

22:12 side that's receiving vesicles as the cysts of the Golgi. The side that

22:19 is called the trans face. So to trans. All right. So

22:28 is going to be modified tagged or inside the Golgi and it knows where

22:32 go because the Golgi knows how to the protein. And if you ask

22:37 , how does it? I don't . Magic black box. one of

22:43 places that these vesicles can go is something called Excuse me. A license

22:51 . A license um is like the of a cell. It's not a

22:56 . It's like a stomach. All . And so what ELISA's OEM is

23:00 a membrane bound organelles. Alright, it does or says this is a

23:06 . Here's your license. Um All . Inside that license zone have been

23:11 lots and lots of enzymes and lots lots of protons and the purpose of

23:18 in all the protons is to drop ph inside there. Now. I

23:22 you a couple of days ago we or not coupled yesterday talked about ph

23:26 proteins. Right. He said that proteins work at certain phs, Certain

23:31 work at certain phs. Your stomach example has enzymes that break down proteins

23:36 work at a ph of two. , your mouth has enzymes that work

23:40 a ph of roughly seven. So here these lice ISMs contain very

23:48 low ph and they have enzymes in and all they're looking for is something

23:53 digest. So here we have a . This particular cell is probably a

23:59 in the cartoon. And we know because it's hunted down a bacteria and

24:04 , aha, you're not supposed to in the body. I'm gonna go

24:06 and grab you and I'm gonna put inside a vesicles. In other

24:10 I'm gonna pinch off a portion of membrane and I'm gonna sequester you.

24:15 then what I'm gonna do is I'm merge this vesicles with that license.

24:20 Now we call this particular vehicle of . Um So don't be panicky when

24:23 see that word. Alright, this um merges with the faga zone and

24:28 all those enzymes in that really really ph environment are active and it breaks

24:34 that little tiny bacterium that it Think of the bacterium like a

24:39 You put your cheeseburger in your swallow and stick it down into your

24:43 track. Do you break down the . Mhm. Because you have enzymes

24:48 recognize carbohydrates. You have enzymes that proteins. You have enzymes that recognize

24:54 acids and you have enzymes that recognize . That was the last one left

24:59 . Right, right. And so enzymes inside the license zone are they're

25:05 of recognizing all the different parts that needs to do and it chops up

25:08 breaks down whatever happens to be in bag a zone and turns it into

25:14 little tiny pieces parts the amino acids nucleic acids and so on that the

25:22 can then use for its own That's our question. Um Not

25:32 So again, it depends on what are located there. Right. And

25:35 I'm kind of using a generic There might be very specific licenses that

25:39 very specific enzymes in this particular Because we're looking at a specific cell

25:45 you know uniquely hunts down bacteria. and that's what a macrophage does.

25:50 means big pages eat. So it's big eater cell. And so its

25:55 is literally is there a bacteria in body that needs to die? And

26:00 what it does. It hunts those . So different cells will have different

26:06 inside their license zones that are responsible for destroying bacteria, but say destroying

26:11 else that that it internalizes all right because these enzymes in here are non

26:21 in the sense that they recognize just or just lipids or carbohydrates, whatever

26:28 don't recognize. Oh, proteins from . Right. They don't recognize proteins

26:35 or lipids from something else. Because doesn't matter where the lipid or the

26:38 or whatever comes from. If you that license zone, that enzyme then

26:43 finds the enzymes. Just find whatever supposed to break down. And so

26:49 can happen is is if you break license, um you can start eating

26:52 things inside the cell and when that , that's bad, right?

26:59 Can you imagine your your own enzymes into your body going look meat,

27:05 ? It would start breaking you We refer to that as atoll

27:09 All right. Weird things about the you see here, right? Is

27:14 mean you look after you want to auto license like automobile instead of a

27:19 . I couldn't even do it if tried I a to mobile to

27:25 So atoll icis. So you gotta like you're british in some of these

27:28 uh atoll icis. Alright. But you say it wrong, I'm

27:32 no one's gonna make fun of Well, at least your face.

27:36 Yeah. Say again. We'll So remember when you dilute out that

27:45 . H. That you're gonna be and less effective but you're still capable

27:47 recognizing. Is that what you're Yeah. Yeah. So. So

27:54 happens is that that particular ph whatever's there, they're not denatured their their

27:59 their active state. But when they into a ph that's a different.

28:02 when they start not being as functional they do denature. Right?

28:07 you gotta remember ph determines or helps the shape doesn't necessarily mean that,

28:14 know, the ph over here, of two will be good for the

28:17 of the stomach, but not for enzymes of the small intestine. The

28:20 of the seven is good for the intestine, but not for the you

28:24 . So, it's you got to in terms of there's an ideal ph

28:28 every protein, ideal temperature for every . And once they fall out of

28:34 ideal range, that's when they kind fall apart, they will slowly break

28:42 down because of the low or the in ph or what they may happen

28:46 it may not the nature they may just become less functional. Alright.

28:52 yes, that is correct. But can imagine they're still functional and

28:57 they're going to recognize things. All . Now, one of the other

29:02 that you can use with a license is you can clean up the

29:08 All right. That's what this last is autopsy gee So, over the

29:12 of every lifespan of anything things damage time, you probably noticed that.

29:17 . Right. And so as organelles damaged, they're too big to to

29:23 um you know, kind of break or they're too they're too big to

29:28 with in a small way. You to deal with them in a big

29:31 is kind of what what we want get at. And so what happens

29:34 , let's say you have a large Al then what you're gonna do is

29:37 going to merge that organ Al with license zone and then license them breaks

29:43 down in a controlled manner. So that the materials that the organ

29:48 . Has or whatever it's supposed to , don't corrupt or or cause problems

29:53 the rest of the cell. a top Aji is a positive mechanism

29:59 managing damaged materials inside the cell. kind of makes sense. So,

30:07 would be I mean again, stupid , but imagine in your car that

30:11 have something that's called a license. and then your carburetor stops working

30:15 So you can pretend like your car how to build its own carburetor.

30:19 so what you do is you make new carburetor and then the license um

30:22 come in and destroy the bad carburetor then everything would be hunky dory

30:29 autopsy gee is one of the mechanisms cells use when they have malfunctioning and

30:34 considered cancerous and when autopsy fails then cancer cells keep going. Yeah.

30:46 so you can imagine the last of is dysfunctional. What happens. The

30:50 keeps misbehaving misbehaving misbehaving and it starts bad things now, you're asking me

30:57 bad things they do depends on the . All right, is the livestock

31:05 they? They're they're an organ l the plasma membrane alright. Or the

31:11 . And see here, if you closely you can see that it's

31:14 So, it's trying to show you it's a lipid bi layer. The

31:18 at least try to do that next L. Is the paroxysm? All

31:27 . So this is actually you can here is a lipid bi layer inside

31:31 . It actually has this crystalline They're made in very strange ways.

31:35 don't come through the Golgi instead. they do is they arise from the

31:40 ectoplasmic particular. Um And what you do is they kind of fuse together

31:43 is called vision and they create Alright. So they're not self rising

31:50 they don't go through the pathway we described are er Golgi and then you

31:55 paroxysm they go straight from the re informed. Now, what they do

32:00 again, they also have specific types enzymes, oxidation and catalysis. But

32:05 job is to deal with something that develop over the course of their lifespan

32:12 are called free radicals. And we're to take vitamin C. Yeah,

32:17 . What is another term for vitamins vitamin C. Have you ever um

32:24 gonna um And I said this now blanked on the name. So give

32:28 a second here. Probably take me 20 minutes now they're called the anti

32:39 . Alright. We take antioxidants because they do is they deal with the

32:44 of free radicals in the body. , if you don't know what a

32:47 radical is, that's okay, you really learn about them until much,

32:50 later in biology. But free radicals in essence a way that when you

32:54 a bond, what you do is create an unstable molecule and this molecule

33:00 so unstable, that is desperate to find something to make it stable.

33:05 when it does, it kind of this um micro explosion. That's the

33:09 I describe it. It's not an explosion, but it can create significant

33:14 to other molecules. And so, radicals caused damage upon damage upon damage

33:20 damage. All right. And so we have is we want we want

33:24 sell that say I don't want to in myself. So I need to

33:28 the presence of these free radicals. right, So, we take vitamins

33:33 vitamin C. Actually eating vegetables, a lot of antioxidants in it.

33:37 so those are natural antioxidants. when you eat vegetables, you're already

33:40 a good job and all that But what they do is they work

33:44 this way, basically, they take and they convert those free radicals which

33:50 larger molecules, they start adding stuff they start breaking them down and making

33:54 less and less unstable until you get to this really weird. Itsy bitsy

33:59 free radical called hydrogen peroxide. And that's what you that's what they're

34:05 the bottom. Alright. So, a stabilizing mechanism that ultimately ends up

34:09 a free radical. But it's the free radical to deal with. And

34:13 free radical hydrogen peroxide uses we use enzyme to convert that into water.

34:21 that's how we neutralize it all. , that's the whole job of the

34:25 zone. All right. So, , you can think of in terms

34:28 detoxification, neutralizing free radicals. And other thing that does is it plays

34:32 role in the beta oxidation of fatty . Don't know, beta oxidation fatty

34:38 . That's fine. We're not going deal with that. That's just you

34:41 , I usually have some upper level there. Okay. Okay. Now

34:43 know where that's taking place. All right. So paroxysms manage to

34:51 against free radical damage. This is coolest structure in the cell. And

35:01 reason it's the coolest structure in the is because it's an ancient structure that

35:07 swallowed up by another cell and stuck , basically, it's one cell that

35:11 another cell and instead of destroying the using license owns it. Said,

35:15 want you to hang out and I you to do stuff for me.

35:17 probably said, please don't eat I can do stuff for you.

35:20 so they created this uh this mutual . And so what you have here

35:26 basically what we call an organ. but really it's probably a foreign

35:30 but it's so ancient that it's stuck forever. It has its own

35:36 And its job is to produce a . P. You know what A

35:40 . P. Is? That's basically for the cell. Okay. This

35:45 the battery of the seller, the plant of the cell. You can

35:48 at a cell count up the number mitochondria and the mitochondria. See you

35:52 say this is a cell that uses energy. So basically they can actually

35:57 on their own use their own And divide and multiply and you can

36:01 more of them as needed. All . Um, so, we're not

36:07 walk through this process until we get muscles. If you took a biology

36:12 and learn about glucose metabolism. Did remember that start off with a glucose

36:17 and after a whole bunch of you end up with a T.

36:20 . At the end. And you memorized at one point I get 34

36:24 38 80 P molecules. And you're , okay, something like that.

36:28 you nodded your head and kind of lot of steps remember that? I've

36:32 . I'm seeing smiles going, okay, I remember that.

36:34 so, good news. We don't to memorize all the steps when you

36:37 biochemistry. You get to memorize all steps, right? And all the

36:40 involved. But that's all taking place . All right. So a little

36:45 of water. A little bit of dioxide are, sorry, basically.

36:51 mean, it's a little bit of and glucose. That's what you get

36:54 water and carbon dioxide to get your . T. P. Alright.

37:00 cool things about this. I should you You don't even know this for

37:03 test. All your mitochondria come from maternal side. Right. So guys

37:10 mitochondria belonged to your mom, which to your grandmother, which belonged to

37:14 great grandmother and so on and so and so on. All right.

37:17 the general dogma or the general rule we follow. Although there are some

37:21 to that rule which we won't go . But that's how it works when

37:26 fusion of the sperm and the egg together. The mitochondria of the sperm

37:30 excluded or destroyed. And the the mother is the of the ovum

37:36 what is is increased. So when go and do those 23 emmys,

37:41 what they're looking at. When they at mitochondrial DNA. They're looking at

37:45 maternal line and seeing how that's Okay, ribosomes. Are they membrane

37:59 or are they complexes? Do you remember what I said? Put them

38:03 the list complexes. That's right. . So that was the last of

38:10 membrane bound. Okay, So we nucleus in the plaza in particular.

38:17 two types Golgi lyricism, paroxysm and mitochondria. Those were all the membrane

38:28 organelles, robert zone. The ribosome where we make proteins. All

38:37 It is both RNA and a protein together to create this large structure.

38:44 actually two sub units here. But this structure right here is what is

38:48 the ribosomes you can see here is large structure. You'll sometimes if you

38:54 , we're not gonna talk about 50 and 30 S. But that's what

38:56 referred to as the 50 S. the large structure. The 30 S

39:00 the small structure. And what happens is that these two pieces come together

39:07 R. N. A. And you read along and it has binding

39:13 for this other type of RNA called . R. N. A.

39:16 brings amino acids in so that you add amino acid after amino acid to

39:20 those peptide bonds so that you get long peptide that grows which will eventually

39:26 your protein. So, this is structure that reads that transcript of

39:32 N. A. To make your . Alright, It consists of both

39:37 and RNA independent of these little things here. So, all that stuff

39:41 there. That is the ribosomes is up of RNA and protein itself.

39:50 is a picture. So, electron . And what you're looking at in

39:54 top picture right here, that little represents the R. N.

39:59 All right, Those big giant balls you see right there. Those would

40:03 the ribosomes. And this right here showing you the extended peptide that's growing

40:09 you add in amino acids. What shows you not only is the process

40:15 making protein here and what ribosomes are , but it shows you how many

40:20 are reading a transcript at any given . So remember that picture I showed

40:26 back here. This isn't showing you rib is um moving along and this

40:32 like A. B. C. . E. And while they show

40:35 like that, it's also you can here's a ribose um here's another

40:42 Um Here's another ribosomes. And as reading along, it's showing you how

40:47 whole thing is being made and each are at a different stage. And

40:52 one transcript can be read by multiple to create many many proteins. Just

40:58 that one transcript. Another way to at it. Did you guys ever

41:03 row your boating around? You know I'm talking about? What around is

41:10 starts row row, row your boat then goes gently down. So you're

41:13 at me like I know what you're about. But I don't want you

41:15 call me to do it and I'm gonna do that. I'm not gonna

41:18 you sing in the classroom, This a science classes in a music

41:22 But row row row your boat, and then the next person starts up

41:27 you go to the next verse. start row row row your boat.

41:29 then they get to the end of verse and they start the next verse

41:32 the next person comes in, That's called around. And so if

41:36 were to do that, we could , I don't know, there's 85

41:39 us in here. We could literally 85 rounds of row row row your

41:44 . It would be really weird because all be sitting there waiting and waiting

41:47 then it's our turn to sing and wait and wait and wait for the

41:50 one to come along. But that's ribosomes work. It's like being singing

41:55 around This is the first one that and as it starts going, then

41:58 next one comes on and then it going and the next one comes

42:01 so on, and so on and on. And that's what it looks

42:09 . This town here is something we've talked about. That's the rough end

42:14 in particular. Again, electron You can see this part right

42:21 right? Those represent the cistern And then those big old dots are

42:28 ribosomes bound to the surface of the of plasma in particular. All

42:34 And so what you're doing here is have your rough into platform, particularly

42:38 the Robinsons are bound up to the . So what that tells us is

42:42 ribosomes exist in two states. We have ribosomes as we first describe bound

42:49 and what their job is is to proteins that are going to be secreted

42:53 inserted into the membrane or put into of those vesicles to make a organ

42:59 . Alright, That's # one. you can have ribosomes that are free

43:03 out in the side is all. what they'll do is they'll find transcripts

43:08 R. N. A. And use those transcripts to make proteins that

43:12 work inside the side is all inside cytoplasm. All right. So their

43:19 is to make proteins that are functional the cell, but not inside an

43:24 L or out on the surface or the cell. All right, ribosomes

43:34 go anywhere they want. They can go inside the mitochondria and do stuff

43:37 the mitochondria. Alright, once they their job, they're free to roam

43:42 wherever they need to be. All . So, they combined up.

43:46 can go inside the mitochondria, they sit inside the side is all You're

43:51 destined for a single destination. It's of like being an intern at an

43:56 , you're working with this person Okay, now, I want you

43:59 go work over there and you just wherever the work is needed. Robin

44:06 make sense. The easy thing to . Help make proteins. Yeah.

44:18 So, I would say that I in the way that you're describing

44:21 Yes. The question was is it proteins production is based on chance?

44:26 answer is yes, but nothing in cell is done by chance. Everything

44:32 incredibly organized, Everything knows exactly where needs to be. We just don't

44:37 how or why. I mean it things happen you know. So as

44:45 are made, you know RNA or ribosomes are there ready to to bind

44:50 up? So most of the regulation done on the production side. On

44:55 on the making the transcript side, on the once I have this

44:59 what do I do now? There regulation there. And when we talk

45:03 that, which after our break today gonna talk a little bit about how

45:06 we go about making a protein? I'm gonna give a lot of detail

45:09 , much of which is not important the exam, but it kind of

45:13 a picture so that you can understand going on. And one of the

45:16 I'm gonna show you is how do regulate the lifespan of a transcript?

45:21 . I mean if I make a , if it's there, I can

45:23 make copies and copies and copies and till the end of time. So

45:27 do I know when to stop and mechanisms in place that allow that the

45:39 bio membrane complex or biomolecular complex Scuse is the side of skeleton. You

45:44 think of these as skeletons or muscles upon what that side of skeleton happens

45:48 be doing at the time. so really what this is is a

45:52 of very, very long proteins that these fibers that are gonna be found

45:56 the entire cytoplasm. All right. so, what you can see here

46:00 little green things represent micro tubules. another other green things, these large

46:07 ones. These are all different types filaments that are doing unique things inside

46:12 cell. So, you've got these long chains and and this is kind

46:17 the big list. Alright. You support and maintain the shape. Look

46:21 like a skeleton, right? It movement, acts like a muscle

46:26 Or the muscle of the self. puts the organelles to where they need

46:30 be. That's one of the ways we can say where things are.

46:36 support motor proteins. Alright. You're I think the video that I

46:43 you know the life of the I think it comes open today.

46:46 you have already watched it, go it just I mean, you're not

46:50 be tested on it, but just watch it so that you can kind

46:52 have a visual representation because the static are are aren't any interesting. One

46:57 the things you'll see in there is motor proteins. When you watch that

46:59 , you're gonna say this was invented Disney. Not that's not the video

47:03 the actual molecule because it looks like cartoon character carrying a big old thing

47:08 too big for itself and it's walking this. You know, that's what

47:13 does. I mean, the motor are basically the things that move the

47:16 around. And these side of sculptural , particularly the micro tubules, are

47:21 highways on which motor proteins run. right. And the other thing,

47:26 helps to hold other structures external to cell, the extra cellular structures in

47:31 . So cells are attached to each because of the side of skeletal

47:35 All right. Have you ever anyone ? Uh, older sibling, are

47:41 an older sibling? Do you Do you have? All right.

47:44 to your younger sibling, did you give him an indian burn? You

47:48 what? Indian burn is Younger siblings received an indian burn. If you

47:52 know what that is, you you what it is. Alright for those

47:55 you don't know what it is. know, when you grab somebody's arm

47:58 then you twist the skin in opposite . It's kind of like, I

48:02 , you know, there's pink you know, pink belly is

48:07 they quit hitting yourself the wet willy then there's here's the fun one if

48:12 the older one. Not funny. you're younger one, you pin them

48:15 and get that. Lucky. I the girls didn't do this. This

48:19 what the guys did. And then and see how hot far. We

48:22 drip it down before we land and like screaming and and get ready for

48:33 . Just telling you this is how have fun. We torture one

48:37 All right. The reason your skin go off your body during that indian

48:43 is because of the side skeletal elements things in place. All right.

48:48 going to see this. So there's different types of fibers. And when

48:53 take a picture of a cell, do not get colors like this.

48:57 just gonna point that out. This a magic trick that we do because

49:01 we have tools that we that light at different um uh spectrums. And

49:08 when we take a picture, we the tool part portion that allows us

49:13 stain. So this is not the colors. This is not even the

49:17 color of the tool. It's just lights up at a different wavelength so

49:21 we can assign a color to So, the first one is the

49:25 filament. It's red. And so the red spots that you see in

49:29 represent these micro filaments. All And so what you can see the

49:34 filament has these two rods and they're twisted together. And the reality is

49:38 that there's these are individual parts that paired up that have created these long

49:43 . But we're just going to go and just use this this helix

49:47 Alright, so it's acting. You've heard the word acting before. If

49:51 ever taken any class that deals with , you're like oh yeah, acting

49:54 part of how muscles contract. That's a micro filament is. Its job

50:00 to bear tension. So when I on a micro filament it doesn't pull

50:05 stretch, it just kind of stays , it helps to determine the shape

50:12 a cell. So you can see the cell has anchored itself and so

50:15 micro filament is there serving as that to where the anchor is. It

50:21 a role in movement. As I , it usually partnered up in muscles

50:24 another um another molecule called and myosin act and work with each other to

50:32 contractions. All right, because acting stretchable. What you do is you

50:37 pull against the the act and the and basically pulls itself along the

50:42 All right. Also plays a role psychokinesis. That's a fancy word for

50:47 for saying sell walking cell movement. now you're not gonna see a lot

50:54 this but most cells are stationary but are some cells that are not so

50:59 cells in the bloodstream that need to fight infection. What they'll do is

51:03 are they find a spot where they're to exit the blood blood. They

51:08 themselves out and then they move in cells That would be psychokinesis. Yeah

51:15 yellow as you're trying to do is intermediate filament. There are lots of

51:19 kinds. They all are members of keratin family keratin. If you don't

51:23 if you sit there and look at fingernails that's made of keratin. Your

51:27 has keratin fibers, your skin has fibers in it. Alright so you

51:32 see are your nails hard? Is hair more or less soft? Your

51:38 feels soft but it's actually pretty I mean you can sit there and

51:41 at it and it doesn't go So keratin is kind of a protein

51:45 kind of a hard protein. All . And so these fibers proteins basically

51:50 wrapped into this tight rope. It's little bit bigger than this. That's

51:53 this one's called the micro filament. one's called the intermediate meaning it's the

51:57 sized one. Alright. And so job is to stabilize cell structure.

52:02 can see here how it's all It also resists tension and it's more

52:07 meaning that once you make it it sticks around and creates its network as

52:12 kind of seeing here in this particular . What do you imagine in that

52:16 dot right there nucleus. Yeah. the nucleus in this one?

52:23 And what they've done is they've used marker that stains D. N.

52:28 . And so that's why they're able market blue. The green here in

52:34 picture is also intermediate filament. So just trying to show you in contrast

52:41 red, here's the micro green is intermediate filament I guess I'm wrong.

52:47 using it here. Okay so take back, ignore what I just

52:53 Um What we have here is the tubules. That's what the green

52:57 There's the intermediate filament fine. Alright the micro tubules, the fun one

53:01 got these dime ear's and what they is they add to each other just

53:05 of like the acting does. But cool about the micro tubules that you

53:08 build it and break it down as . And it creates these two black

53:12 is the biggest one. And so don't know if you can tell but

53:16 is a tube that you could actually through. All right now this micro

53:24 can be used for a whole bunch things. It can create the

53:26 That's that's not compressible. So you press on the cell and it doesn't

53:31 . It just basically stays the Um And again helps us determine

53:36 It serves where the motor proteins walk what we're going to see a little

53:39 later is that they're part of the and the flag ela play a role

53:44 are things on which you you can or use the cilia. So these

53:48 found in tai inside Cillian flag ela you don't know what a flagellum is

53:53 you don't know what silly is their extensions from the cell which we'll get

53:57 in just a moment that allow for moving the materials around. In terms

54:02 flagellate allows you to swim. All . This is also what is used

54:08 the cell during cellular division to pull apart. So when each cell is

54:12 its D. N. A. how you do that, you pull

54:15 the parts. So again these are permanent. You build and destroy them

54:20 you go along. So the micro originate from a structure called a central

54:26 . Central zone has within it the old. Alright, so it's easy

54:29 confuse those two things. The center is both of these essentials are the

54:35 . And so you can see here you have 123 tubes that kind of

54:40 . And you have basically um it's nine plus two. So there's gonna

54:44 nine here and then there's gonna be that come in the middle. And

54:47 is where the micro tubules come And so while you can see in

54:50 picture like right here where it's kind like everything kind of originates. That's

54:55 the central is probably located center or central zone is there there's a central

55:00 over here centuries. Um And so where the micro tubules are coming

55:06 Um The century old go by another in some places you'll see them called

55:11 bodies. That's kind of an old term. Um I think that's really

55:16 you need to know their compression And so that's when all the

55:19 If you like pushed on the micro , all that forces come here and

55:23 be extended back out through the Three more slides. And we're gonna

55:29 a break here. I just want introduce you to the plasma membrane and

55:33 we have a good stopping point. the plasma membrane is the barrier between

55:41 inside and the outside of the Alright, if you look at the

55:45 membrane, what you're gonna see is made up of those fossil lipids.

55:48 a lipid bi layer. So here the phosphor lipid. There's a phosphor

55:52 . You can see they've arranged themselves we described. The hydrophobic tails are

55:56 towards each other. The heads are towards water. Heads would be pointing

56:00 water inside the cell whenever you see picture like this, this is inside

56:03 cell that's outside the cell. All , so, fossil lipids are not

56:11 only lipid found inside the plasma Alright, so, you'll see um

56:20 . So, you can see here little yellow thing there's cholesterol, there's

56:24 . There's other types of of lipids we're not gonna go into called finger

56:29 . Um We have glycol lipids which did mention, remember. That's where

56:32 take one of these fossil lipids. you put sugar on the on

56:35 You'll find the glycol lipids are always out from the cell. They never

56:40 into the cell. And again, because the cells use those as identify

56:47 . In addition, you'll have proteins are part of the plaza memory and

56:52 where all the purple things represent the are. These proteins can be

56:57 meaning they're put into the membrane, integrated into the membrane or they can

57:03 peripheral, which means that they are loosely associated to the surface or just

57:09 pushed in. So you can imagine this would be easy to get

57:15 This is a lot harder to And so there's different types of proteins

57:19 we'll get into in another lecture. the idea is for example, proteins

57:23 be used to pass materials back and across. It allows for things on

57:27 outside to communicate messages to the inside so on because that's a barrier.

57:32 need to have a way to be to have crosstalk between those two

57:37 And that's one of the things that can do. There's also such things

57:41 glycoprotein that's similar to the glycol It's putting sugars on the outside so

57:46 you can use them primarily for identification also for interacting with the environment.

57:55 this little picture you can see down , the little pink things that represents

58:00 of skeleton. Now none of these that you see in here are stuck

58:08 . Alright, so this fossil lipid not attached to that fossil lipid and

58:13 not attached to none of those things attached to each other. They're just

58:16 arrangement with each other because they have same properties. Remember they all want

58:21 hide their tails from the water. they accumulate and congregate with each

58:26 So what we have is a structure doesn't have a lot of stability,

58:32 similarly still has a lot of stability because of the chemical nature of these

58:37 . And so if you were to at the plasma membrane and again,

58:40 video will show you, it kind looks like a waterbed. I mean

58:44 things are kind of moving all the like this. And these fossil lipids

58:47 stuck in position that you can like one and you can watch it just

58:50 of move through. It will stay one side, just fine. It

58:54 kind of wander all over the place these proteins move around unless they're attached

58:58 something like the the side of So everything is movable and has ability

59:05 move around. What they really can't is flip to the other side.

59:10 , if you have a foster flipping here, it's really hard for it

59:12 flip over there. It costs a of energy. So you need an

59:16 to help do that. And usually that happens it's a sign of stress

59:19 distress and sell that's one of the that people can actually identify bad

59:25 All right. So molecules can go they go based on need. That's

59:29 of a neat thing. And just an example of this, the lab

59:33 I trained next door was a lab worked on these types of surface proteins

59:38 there called Integrated. And they bind other things and they would try to

59:43 what do cells do at zero They had a contract with a grant

59:48 Nasa. So they put them on . And so cells normally sit down

59:52 sit on plates. But these are type of cells that like to move

59:55 . And so what they do is put them at zero G. And

59:58 , well how well do they move ? And they would video And they

60:00 these uh dies that you could watch they're attached to and see where the

60:05 move. And it was like watching treads, you could see the protein

60:09 attached and they would get to the of the cell and be like,

60:12 I need to get to the front zip around the other side, go

60:15 and then sit there and then it's gonna be stuck in it. Do

60:18 all over again. So it just of exemplifies this mobility of these proteins

60:24 these foster lipids to move within the . So one of the ways that

60:32 fluidity. So you it's fluid because remember those fossil lipid tails temperature causes

60:40 to bounce around and move around a . Right? And so the higher

60:44 temperature, the more frequency of molecules and that creates a more liquid

60:49 Whereas as temperature drops, there's less , some molecules tend to kind of

60:53 in and get kind of stiff and they get closer together and create more

60:56 a solid. Now you've lived in long enough to understand that it gets

61:01 darn hot here. And you can if my every one of my cells

61:05 into liquid that doesn't bode well for . And the purpose of cholesterol is

61:10 stabilize that cell. Remember I said is important. So if you have

61:18 we talked about those saturated lipids where have the straight tails, they can

61:21 together and create a solid. But don't. We have those tales that

61:24 of kink out off to the side that creates that space that kind of

61:28 that fluid environment to begin with. what cholesterol does it inserts itself into

61:33 spaces. So instead of having a environment, what we do is we

61:38 up with something that's a little bit stabilized. So at higher temperatures as

61:43 becomes less and less stable and more more liquid that cholesterol inserts itself further

61:48 further. And so it creates a solid state, even though the cell

61:53 membrane should become liquid similarly at cold . Remember what he says? We

61:59 those those lipids to kind of get and closer together. Right. They

62:05 naturally just kind of like all But the cholesterol jammed it's way on

62:08 inside and so it doesn't allow those leopards to get together. So,

62:13 membrane, which is kind of loosey never solidifies, which is one of

62:18 reasons why humans are so ubiquitous. can be anywhere because cold temperatures don't

62:26 with us ourselves quite as much as should, and higher temperatures don't interfere

62:31 ourselves as much as it should. is true for lots of organisms.

62:35 just the purpose of cholesterol. But it helps effect how stable our

62:43 is the last thing. And then go and take a break and say

62:48 God. He's gonna shut up. right. I know. I would

62:53 in the same place going, when he gonna let him go go to

62:54 bathroom. Alright. The Black oak is just a fancy word for saying

62:59 the proteins and lipids on the surface have sugars attached to it.

63:04 it's just basically everything that you see there and as I mentioned, those

63:10 can be unique. So unique that identical twins don't have the same glycol

63:15 . All right, this is like Calix is what allows this set one

63:19 the ways that the cell can communicate the external environment. The plasma membrane

63:25 remember, it's a lipid bi there's two layers of lipid lipid

63:28 one lipid layer two. And what does. It serves as a physical

63:33 to things from the inside and So, if I have something floating

63:36 here in the water that's water it's gonna come to this membrane and

63:41 can't penetrate through the membrane. It's trying to pass through a wall.

63:45 doesn't allow you to do so. what that means is that it excludes

63:49 on the external side to the internal and vice versa. It's literally a

63:55 so that the cell can then be to allow what comes in and what

63:58 out now. What it allows have in this place. So you can

64:05 things like ions to come in or can select which nutrients you want so

64:09 and so forth. The other thing it does and this is where it

64:13 invaluable for our knowledge is that it because of the differences of those

64:19 Remember we talked about those ions I didn't ask you to memorize

64:23 I just said there's there's differences. differences of arms on the insides and

64:27 outsides creates electrical differences. And those differences can then be used by the

64:33 by allowing which ions to pass back forth so that the cell can then

64:39 current. That's how your neurons and muscles work. And lastly we're going

64:45 have these receptors so that when there things out here they combined to that

64:49 then communicate two things on the inside make the cells do stuff. So

64:58 membrane isn't just in the way it's a very dynamic structure that allows the

65:06 to communicate and regulate its own communicate with the external environment and regulate

65:13 going on inside and outside. And not gonna go into the level of

65:17 . That would be exciting and interesting least to me to help you understand

65:21 that. But we're going to be at this over and over and over

65:24 . So what we're gonna do we're take about a five minute break.

65:27 what time is it? It's 10 1005. Alright. Take about a

65:31 minute break and then we'll come back we're gonna wrap up everything. It

65:36 be pretty quick. Um I slowed a little bit there. Oh sorry

65:49 to the lab whatever it is that gotta do. So we've already seen

65:54 picture and I'm throwing it up here a starting point to help us understand

65:58 of the major functions of cells which to make their machinery. Okay.

66:04 so the central dogma of genetics. you ever take genetics this is what

66:08 gonna kind of run up against. thing is we start off with DNA

66:12 the nucleus. D. N. is going to be made. You're

66:14 make a transcript. That transcript is M R N. A. M

66:18 N. A is then going to the cell and then it's going to

66:22 a ribosome. Whether it's gonna be to an end applied in particular um

66:25 free in the side is all that will then read it. And from

66:30 sequence of RNA you will read out proper sequence for the protein that you're

66:35 to make proteins are the things that the work of the self. So

66:39 is central and really what you just to know for this class.

66:44 But I want you to understand this . All right. It's it's significant

66:51 that I want to kind of run some of these steps here.

66:54 And I just want to make sure recording everything. All right. So

66:58 off, let's let's kind of look what DNA and RNA is. All

67:01 . So D. N. Is the hereditary material, right?

67:06 refer to it as the genome. every gene in your body is collectively

67:09 to as the genome. Each gene an instruction set for a specific protein

67:16 the body. Alright. And if you look at a gene,

67:21 see that it actually contains regions that are useful for actually making the protein

67:26 then regions that are not useful for the protein are directly important. There's

67:32 such thing as junk DNA. You'll that word junk DNA. This is

67:36 there's no such thing as that. we say is that we have coding

67:39 which gives rise to the protein sequence we have non coding sequence that does

67:44 give rise to that. So the is exon and intron. So Exxon's

67:48 the parts that we use entrance of part that we exclude. Then in

67:53 to our N. A. There many different types of RNA. The

67:58 that are important for us are listed here. We've already seen this the

68:02 . RNA. That is the transcript has the instructions for the protein.

68:07 there's also transfer RNA transfer RNA binds to a single amino acid. There's

68:13 T. RNA. Each one binds to to a specific amino acid and

68:17 job is to bring that amino acid the growing peptide. And then we

68:22 the ribosomes RNA which is part of rhizome. And remember that's part of

68:26 structure that helps read the M. . N. A. Now if

68:31 plan on going into the future and the biology track, you're gonna learn

68:34 there's other types of RNA and it is a very very complex network of

68:39 molecules. But for the making of protein you just need to know that

68:43 three things exist. Now. When talk about the chroma tin, we

68:48 , oh look there's chroma to inside cell. And typically you'll see a

68:52 like here's a chromosome. That's not D. N. A. Usually

68:55 in a cell. D. A. Looks more like this in

68:58 cell. It's only when you get that DNA organizes itself into its chromosomes

69:04 that you can duplicate them or replicate and split them apart. So most

69:08 the time your DNA exists in this of chroma tin. So if you

69:12 at the chrome a tin, what gonna find is that it consists of

69:15 . N. A. Alright, fine. Great. But it's only

69:18 d. n. a. Is made up of proteins. The proteins

69:23 called his stones. And what you is you wrap D. N.

69:26 around the his stones. And that's of the ways that you organize it

69:29 keep track of it and store it in a compact way. Think about

69:33 you pack a suitcase, right? you're like me, you take all

69:37 clothes and you just throw them in suitcase and then you sit there and

69:39 to figure out ways to jam and up that suitcase up. But if

69:43 a smart person, what you do you take each individual piece of clothing

69:46 you fold it up nice and neat then you wrap it up nice and

69:49 and you put it in there and you have lots of room in your

69:51 for other important things. Right? that's kind of what chromatic is.

69:55 an organized way of keeping track of the D. N. A.

69:59 . You use the his stones too sequester up and hide up and organize

70:05 stuff that you're not using. And you take off the his stones for

70:08 stuff or unravel the his stones so you have regions that you can then

70:14 . Alright. And then there's some that's attached to it as well.

70:18 the chromatic exists in two states. U. Chroma tin is where the

70:22 of R. N. A. . All right. So in other

70:25 that's the stuff where the genes are that cell needs. And so that's

70:29 you have less histone. And you're to read through the D.

70:32 A. And make all those transcripts you need. The stuff that that

70:36 doesn't need is called hetero chromatic. that's the stuff that's kind of jammed

70:39 to the side. It's more dense and kind of stored up.

70:45 then as I mentioned before cell that's how you get those chromosomes.

70:50 what we're looking at here when we about these jeans we need to be

70:55 of the U. Chroma tin. the hetero chroma tin. So what

70:59 done is we've kind of unraveled the . N. A. And made

71:01 available. And so what we're saying like in this region over here we

71:05 something that we want to read that's gene the genes are the instructions for

71:10 actual protein. Now remember DNA exists that uh that helix. Right?

71:16 what we do is we usually represented a line and we say these are

71:20 things that we find in that So this right here is supposed to

71:24 a gene. Alright now the the average length of every gene of

71:30 genes are about 3000 nucleotides. There some that are very long. There

71:34 some that are very small but it's 3000 nucleotides there's a beginning which we

71:40 the promoter. And so this is the machinery of the cell that reads

71:44 make that RNA transcript comes along and down on that. And then that's

71:49 it starts moving and reading the N. A. To make that

71:53 of RNA. That we're going to use all right at the far end

71:58 have a terminator that tells you this where you stop reading. So we

72:02 a place to start. We have place to stop. So that's how

72:05 can identify where the gene actually And so when you come along you

72:10 see you unravel the D. A. And what you're doing is

72:13 can imagine there's molecules here that are along and they're reading along the length

72:17 that D. N. A. that you get a transcript that looks

72:19 lot like that D. N. . And that's where you get that

72:23 . R. N. A. the Mrna concludes everything between that promoter

72:30 in that terminated region. So it the exxons as well as the parts

72:35 you don't need. The entr And if you included the introns and

72:39 those exxons and you get some sort random gobbledygook that you could never read

72:43 understand. So you have to do processing and that's what happens with that

72:48 . It gets processed along the So here is an example of this

72:53 M. RNA. The thing that to be processed. You can see

72:56 they've done here. Said look here's intron exon, intron exon. So

72:59 so forth. All we want are and so what we're gonna do is

73:03 gonna do a couple of things. off we're gonna do some splicing.

73:08 basically says I want to get rid the stuff that we don't need.

73:11 so we're gonna get rid of the tron. Now when I was in

73:14 seats there was for every gene there only one way to read a

73:19 Since then we've learned that each gene actually be modified in different ways and

73:24 what this is trying to show you like oh look from that one

73:28 I can make this protein or I make that protein or I can make

73:31 protein, I can use different exxons different ways to create unique structures.

73:39 . So it's a little more complicated I first learned. All right.

73:43 of the things we also have to is RNA is an incredibly unstable

73:47 You don't want RNA sticking around because want to regulate. As we're

73:51 regulate how long you want to make protein. So they're already unstable.

73:58 lifespan of an unstable Ized M. . The half life is about five

74:03 . All right. And so you to stabilize that? Make it

74:07 So the first thing that does it and it caps it with with a

74:11 and the reverse orientation is called guanine . Alright, so that's gonna stabilize

74:16 molecule. And then what you're gonna is you're gonna get a whole bunch

74:18 adnan's and you're gonna add them along a big old chain at the very

74:23 . Now again, the way we this out, we make it look

74:25 a line. But that's not actually happens RNA takes that poly a tail

74:30 it wraps it around over here to cap. So you end up with

74:32 ring. Okay? And now what have is you have a much more

74:37 molecule. And what you can do after you've done the splicing and the

74:42 and the tailing is now you have ring that then you can then read

74:47 Exxon's in frame and once you read exxons that's how you can do the

74:51 . And since it's a ring you keep going around over and over and

74:54 and over and over again and eventually fall apart. And that's when you

74:58 the RNA. So how do I this thing? Well protein synthesis has

75:05 steps. We've already talked about them I'm just reiterating them. The first

75:10 . Remember is transcription that's taking the . Right? So here's my jean

75:16 I'm going to transcribe it into our . A. That's what this

75:21 Right I'm transcribing it to make the and then I go through that modification

75:25 then once I have the modification I that transcript out and I now have

75:31 translate it and it's that translation step is actual making of protein.

75:39 It's decoding the message. It's easy get them confused but just think about

75:44 I transcribed somebody when I cheated in math class I transcribed someone else's

75:49 Right? That's an easy one to I transcribed it right? When I

75:53 to spanish class and the teacher looks me after I said something and she

75:57 in espanol it's like okay I have translate it. All right and that's

76:02 you're doing. You're turning it in nucleotide language to amino acid language.

76:09 modifies the oh there's all sorts of that we don't want to get into

76:15 take biochemistry. Yes ma'am. No let's see it was probably showing you

76:29 it's a I have to go back look. It's alright it's way back

76:34 . But yeah. Um Let's see . What is it showing you?

76:39 . Yeah so those are probably just probably mitochondrial D. N.

76:43 Because they're small snippets. They're not the big genome that we have.

76:48 It started off as a its own own organism. So we'll get there

76:56 right so to make a protein what we need to remember? I said

77:01 need three are we need to copy M. R. N.

77:05 So that's the transcript. Right? has code ons which we'll get to

77:10 just a second that code for each amino acid. So it's the sequence

77:14 you see there is going to tell what things you need to put in

77:19 . You need free amino acids. If I'm gonna build something with amino

77:23 I gotta have those available. And I'm gonna do is I'm gonna take

77:26 amino acids and I'm gonna bind them the T RNA is now the

77:29 RNA. So here's your T. . N. A. S.

77:33 ? It has a sequence that recognizes in the Mrna it's carrying with it

77:42 specific amino acid so whatever this is specific to a specific sequence and it's

77:49 along a specific amino acid. Right all you gotta do now is you

77:54 to translate what you're looking at. that's the purpose of the rebel

77:58 The rib zone reads that RNA in and knows where to put things based

78:04 that sequence and this is what it like. You do not need to

78:09 this. Please don't memorize this. , but what this is, it

78:14 you the code in. And how you read it you say?

78:16 what is the first base if it A U C A R G,

78:19 the second base? You see A G. What's the third base U

78:22 A R G. And that tells what it is. And so you

78:25 see for example I'm gonna start here the A U G. A.

78:28 G. Is always always always under circumstance, you don't need to know

78:31 for the exam. But always for own sake is always the very first

78:35 acid in your proteins. Because is start sequence four an MRNA transcript.

78:44 um Athenian is absolutely 100% necessary to in your body in order to make

78:51 . If you don't have martini can't a protein. Alright. And we

78:55 our own right. But you can it's like oh if I want availing

78:59 I just need to have that So here we go. Here we

79:02 the Matthias nine. Here's the Right? So there's your au

79:07 So this is what you're reading the RNA comes in. It has the

79:11 base pair to that and it brings it the amino acid and it sits

79:16 top of that coat on. And when it happens we're going to see

79:19 the next step what occurs. So D. N. A. Has

79:23 code that looks like this that you've a copy of. There's your copy

79:27 the R. N. A. then from that that's gonna be the

79:30 of the proteins. All right? D. N. A. This

79:36 the important part. D. A. Is transcribed into RNA.

79:41 is translated into protein. When we're about the sequence we refer to the

79:46 in the D. N. We refer refer to the code and

79:48 RNA which gives rise to the amino . This is how it kind of

79:54 . So here we are reading here's ribs. Um We have different binding

79:58 and so you can see here this the one that's coming in. When

80:02 comes in, it matches up and all sorts of different ones,

80:06 It matches up And then what it is this one gets attached to that

80:11 then this ribbon zone continues to So the thing that was here slips

80:15 into this slot and it has this tail. And then as this slot

80:19 over to there it's then released. so what you're doing is you're basically

80:23 an amino acid to the end and the tail over and over and over

80:28 . And that's how you get a . So you can imagine here is

80:33 RNA here's the first rib zone. can see I'm starting to extend

80:38 There's that first amino acid I've moved ribbon zone along the way, I've

80:42 more amino acids. Then the next comes along adds its first amino acid

80:45 it just keeps reading along and Here's the picture we saw before this

80:51 right here is one of these pictures down here. We saw this picture

80:56 . This is how we do it regard to the end of plasma

81:02 The mechanism is the same. You that RNA you read it in frame

81:09 you bring in the amino acids to the right code. That's the

81:16 Now. Before before I answer the . The important thing to take away

81:21 these five slides because you're sitting there , what do I know for the

81:24 ? I know how you guys think I need to go for the

81:27 What you need to know for the . DNA becomes RNA. RNA becomes

81:31 , right does throw through a process transcription transcription. Taking DNA and pulling

81:37 that RNA message. What is translation that are in a reading it in

81:42 and putting the amino acids in the order so I can get the protein

81:47 the nutshell. Yes. No no curiosity is good. Go ahead.

82:03 uh so you're asking chicken egg question do not know the answer to.

82:08 . Um I suspect that there Um it probably goes back to a

82:14 long time ago. I can remember of the things we said. Cell

82:16 says all cells originated from other So something that had to have happened

82:21 allow that to occur so that when cell actually divide, just giving up

82:25 to be able to do that. you're asking when did that start?

82:28 I don't know the answer. I'm to say that. Yes ma'am.

82:41 . Mhm. Yes. So so right. So you can think about

82:46 like this is that at any given you have multiple proteins that need to

82:51 made. So you have multiple RNA are being made. Right? So

82:56 RNA that you need for any particular at any particular time is going to

83:00 multifold. So over here I'm making protein for digestion over here. I'm

83:05 the protein for cell recognition and And I'm making as much as I

83:10 because that lifespan of that are in exists for as long as I needed

83:15 is dependent upon how long the poly tail is and other stuff that we

83:20 go into. Right so the first of regulation is going to be at

83:27 I make the M RNA transcript. I turn on genes and turn off

83:32 to determine which proteins are going to made? Right and then how long

83:37 RNA sticks around determines how long I'm do the process. Okay that

83:42 Did I answer? It sort Yeah. Okay now proteins have shapes

83:53 they don't just get made magically get shapes. They need something to help

83:56 along the way. And so they these things called chaperone proteins and they

84:00 are what you see here. so you can see here's our rivals

84:04 here's our extending peptide. And then happens is the special proteins come along

84:09 what they do is they help fold correctly because remember we said that they

84:12 to have the right shape to be to recognize other molecules if you have

84:14 wrong shape, it's totally useless. love this picture because this is an

84:19 protein and it looks like a cocktail . You know the cocktail shaker

84:22 So basically what you do is you the protein in there with the histone

84:26 the H. S. P. . Of the heat shock proteins is

84:28 family. And what you do is put the top on it and shake

84:31 up and magically comes the right I don't know how it works.

84:34 magic. We're just gonna leave it that for right now. All

84:38 But that's how it does it. creates their chaperone proteins that help give

84:42 the desired shape and every protein has different shape. So how does it

84:46 how to do that? I don't . Yes, magic. But what

84:51 say is when we deal with proteins they have different levels of organization.

84:57 . So in order for protein to , it has to have the right

85:00 . It has to have the right . And so we need to understand

85:03 those are. The first level of organization is called the primary structure.

85:09 structure is the easiest. It's just sequence of the amino acids.

85:13 So, think about how your name spelled if you took those letters and

85:16 them around, would it spell your anymore? No. So your name

85:20 a primary structure. It's just a of letters in a row and that's

85:24 this is. Is basically the sequences the amino acids. So, in

85:27 little region it's gonna be phenylalanine losing Sistine. If you don't know what

85:32 abbreviations are, that's fine. You need to know that for this

85:37 That sequence because remember we talked about side, those variable regions on the

85:42 acids those are gonna then affect how amino acids relate to each other.

85:49 . If you've ever been on a on Southwest or any airlines? Remember

85:53 airline seats used to be a lot and people used to be a lot

85:57 and you go sit in one of chairs gonna be very, very

85:59 But now you get on an airline you can have a seat that's too

86:03 for a normal human and then you have someone who's very large sit in

86:06 of these seats and they kind of over and then if you're next to

86:08 of those people and your large to me then you're kind of sitting like

86:12 , right, that person there has how I sit, those side chains

86:18 those amino acids do the exact same . They affect how the amino acids

86:23 to each other because they have mass them. And so it will happen

86:27 you'll end up with what are called secondary structures. Now, secondary structures

86:31 into basically two different categories. Um secondary structures are can be like an

86:38 helix. So basically you get these the amino acids just kind of turn

86:42 each other and they create this So this would be an example of

86:45 lot of alpha helix is in a . Another type of secondary structure is

86:49 a beta sheet and a beta sheet basically they create these sheets that go

86:53 and forth. And so they kind create these flat zones in the

86:57 Now again, you don't need to I mean, but you can kind

86:59 see look there's kind of this flat here and so you can see it

87:02 of has a unique interaction. It it could react uniquely than say this

87:07 over here. And so secondary structures like these combinations of secondary structures give

87:15 to larger three dimensional shapes. And what tertiary structures refer to this

87:20 Secondary structure are alpha helix and beta . So you can see a little

87:23 clear here's an alpha sheet or an helix. So the tertiary structure is

87:29 you take all those secondary structures and ask the question, what sort of

87:33 does it give the molecule? And you get all sorts of of unique

87:37 . So like right here that is tertiary structure. This is, most

87:41 are globular molecules. And so you see there's that glob. But if

87:44 go back and look at this, at how all these alpha sheets gave

87:48 protein a unique shape, right? remember shape determines function. Look at

87:55 one, it's a different shape, a different shape. This one has

87:58 sheets that create this unique interaction point to say, this one or even

88:05 that side. And so tertiary structure functional groups that allow that protein to

88:14 with other molecules. And it's maintained a whole bunch of different types of

88:19 interactions. I mean there's a whole of different types of bonds whether or

88:24 you have hydrophobic interactions. Remember how said you have these non polar regions

88:28 kind of get pushed inward, that's you get those tertiary structures and secondary

88:35 . These are just trying to show bonds that are kind of holding things

88:37 place. Now most proteins exist in tertiary structure but then other proteins exist

88:47 combination with other proteins and they create macro molecules. This is the most

88:53 macro molecule you'll see in a biology because we all use we all use

88:57 example. This right here is a of hemoglobin, Hemoglobin has four molecules

89:05 globe in 123, 4 it has it. These pigment molecules of heem

89:12 this molecule right here is responsible for oxygen in your blood alright, specifically

89:17 your red blood cells. All so the combination of those prosthetic groups

89:23 all those interactions of those independent proteins this larger macro molecule is referred to

89:29 a quaternary structure, That fourth level organization. And again, everything is

89:34 held in place by these chemical What I want to say here is

89:44 proteins, you know, and I've in the last slide, but I

89:47 want to reiterate it. So, just kind of summarizing summing up proteins

89:52 is going to be dependent upon what you have, which gives rise to

89:56 secondary structure which gives rise to its shape once you know, the overall

90:01 , you can kind of see or the type of interactions those molecules are

90:06 when you change the shape of a you're changing its activity or its

90:11 And that's why we're why we kind talked about these different shapes. We're

90:18 of sliding into home plate here. don't know how many slides do I

90:21 left. You know five C sliding home plate. I'm like watching the

90:28 time to run. And I've mentioned already. But if you didn't catch

90:34 along the way, what we have the cell is a series of organelles

90:39 work with each other that create a of a path or not a

90:44 But basically this network of structures that things. We refer to this as

90:50 indo membrane system. So here you your nucleus. Here's your into plaza

90:54 there's your gold G. Here's a . Um There's some vesicles and so

90:58 . And here's your plasma membrane. of these structures are interconnected with each

91:05 . Even though they're unique structures. do unique things. Right? We

91:08 them. We said the nucleus has hereditary material and apply particular makes protein

91:13 sorts it plasma membrane protects but also proteins in it. They're all interconnected

91:18 each other because one they're made with lipids and because what we're doing is

91:25 starting they're at that nucleus to make proteins that either going to be secreted

91:31 found on the surface of the cell go to those other organelles that do

91:37 work of the cell. All So, the big picture here is

91:45 and transport, metabolism, meaning I'm things or breaking things transport, meaning

91:50 moving things back and forth. So, protein census transport metabolism.

91:58 talked about detoxification. Those vesicles you'll see drawn like independent and sitting around

92:06 doing nothing. But they do There's something moving around. Nothing moves

92:12 of itself inside the cell. Everything a place to go and is being

92:16 purposefully inside a cell. And that's the motor proteins do here.

92:21 here's a vesicles. It's not just around going, how do I find

92:24 I need to go? Something is , I am tasked to move this

92:28 here to over there. And motor proteins are doing that job.

92:33 are different types of motor proteins, and dining. Of the two most

92:36 types or classes the movement. Because sort of movement requires energy is going

92:42 be a teepee dependent. That's what means. It requires energy and just

92:47 sure that Okay, I got this l full of proteins that need to

92:50 secreted. I'm gonna take those. gonna move them to the plasma

92:54 That's what motor protein does. It's cool in the video. If you

93:00 watch it, it's moving a No, actually take it back.

93:03 is moving a testicle mitochondria. Once vesicles gets to this is more complex

93:10 than you need to know down But once that vesicles gets to the

93:13 , it doesn't just gonna merge up the membrane. It needs to know

93:17 to go. So, there's this mechanism. These are called the

93:21 All right. Actually. This is easy one. I thought it was

93:24 more difficult. So, there's a that's found on the membrane. There's

93:27 snare that's found on the vesicles, two snares together when they attach each

93:31 . That means I'm at the right . And now what I can do

93:34 I can merge the two membranes together I can release the contents through a

93:39 called exocet doses, which we'll talk tomorrow. So the idea is that

93:44 not random. The vesicles is being to where it goes, it knows

93:49 to attach to and there's mechanisms for to attach these stairs and then it

93:55 open. But it's ready to open it gets a signal. And when

93:59 signal arrives, in other words, self tells it okay, time to

94:02 your materials then it does. So signals are usually calcium dependent. If

94:08 ever wondered why you have to drink milk, does your body good.

94:12 yeah, you're too young. See sucks. I get old and you

94:15 get younger. There used to be commercial milk. It does your body

94:21 calcium is what allows that's the signal says all right, you're there.

94:25 ahead and release your contents and that's you get the exhaust psychosis. This

94:29 the picture. You don't need to anything. But if you're interested in

94:32 at that stuff, go look at and you can kind of see here's

94:35 snares and then it shows you um calcium coming in. Yeah, there's

94:40 calcium right there and how you But you can see by docking

94:44 it's like taking a boat and moving to the dock. And everyone's

94:46 alright, wait until everything's tied We'll let you know when to exit

94:50 boat. And that's kind of what does. So, here's your gold

94:57 . This is the trans face. here. We have proteins that are

95:03 to be inside the vesicles which can that they can stay inside the life

95:08 or other vesicles structures or what we do is we can go and secrete

95:15 . Or if you're like a uh membrane protein, you're already inserted in

95:20 membrane. And so when this membrane through this process, then you're going

95:25 find yourself on the surface and now have a plasm protein that's capable of

95:29 with its environment. So that's really kind of the destination for these types

95:33 proteins. Again, this is just you the license. Um doing

95:41 All right. It's just a different . Here's your license. Um What

95:46 it do? I can take in particles, things that the self wants

95:50 destroy. Here's a damaged organ. remember that was the autopsy gee and

95:56 setting that sucker aside, right, have all those those enzymes sequestered

96:04 I've lowered the ph And what I now do is I can deal with

96:08 types of destruction in the cells, . Not everything is destroyed through

96:17 Um So here's another little fun L proto zone. You got a

96:23 protein protein you don't want hanging Remember? We said that we regulate

96:27 on the front end but you got regulate on the back end too.

96:29 what happens if you get a protein you no longer need? They basically

96:33 up lots of things are tagged, ? And so it basically says,

96:37 , you're allowed to go in the . You're allowed to not you're not

96:39 to go to nucleus. So there's markers on these things. So one

96:43 the markers that we use is something ubiquity. When you hear ubiquitous,

96:47 does that mean everywhere. That's where got its name. It's protein.

96:52 everywhere. I don't know what it but we're just gonna call it ubiquitous

96:55 . And truthfully that's how most things named in biology. Like I said

96:59 they see it's what it looks like what it does. So here we

97:04 ubiquity in it's bound up to the . But when you get that ubiquitous

97:08 up that's a signal to say send to the garbage disposal. That's what

97:12 ozone is. It's a garbage It takes individual proteins that are sitting

97:16 the side is all. And then it does, it breaks them down

97:19 makes amino acids. And once you amino acids you can use them over

97:23 over again. As many times you to make new proteins. That is

97:30 we need to know about the So if you draw the pictures,

97:34 kind of label everything out, you of see everything you're sitting there

97:39 I don't believe you are there What time is it? Probably we're

97:46 . But Oh good. See I just I told you you now have

97:51 minutes go get a coffee, sweat you walk over to STL. Any

97:58 ? No questions. All right, we come back we'll jump into the

98:03 section. Which is I can't even at this point oh how cells talk

98:08 each other? We're still doing cell . Have a great

-
+